Table 3.

Overview of the cognitive domain

	References	Publication Type	Attention	Learning	Spatial cognition	General cognition	Study summary and Authors’ conclusions
1	Adjorlu et al. (2017)	Research article		*			The authors present a study conducted to investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of VR applied to daily living skills (DLS) training of individuals diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The study indicates some positive effects of a head-mounted display based VR simulation to train DLS. However, further research is needed to measure the long-term effects
2	Adjorlu and Serafin (2019)	Research article		*			The authors presented a study conducted to investigate the feasibility and effectiveness of VR for teaching money skills to adolescents diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). VR roleplay training illustrates some potentials and benefits in using VR as a mean to teach money skills. A pre- and post-VR training evaluation was conducted using real coins and bills
3	Bennett et al. (2018)	Research article			*		VR can provide robust assessment of cognitive spatial processing skills in individuals with visual impairment. Findings from the current work demonstrate a successful interaction between individuals with visual impairments and VR simulations in assessing high-level visual function
4	Blume et al. (2017)	Research article	*				Generalization of acquired self-regulation skills from laboratory to real life is crucial for a transfer to everyday situations and is hypothesized to be facilitated via training using VR environments. As the authors argued, this was the first study investigating the efficacy of neurofeedback training for children with ADHD in a VR compared to a 2D environment
5	Boyle et al. (2016)	Review article		*			The current review focused on 143 papers that provided higher-quality evidence about the positive outcomes of games. The most frequently occurring outcome reported for games for learning was knowledge acquisition, while entertainment games addressed a broader range of affective, behaviour change, perceptual and cognitive and physiological outcomes
6	Chang et al. (2020)	Research article		*			This study proposed a non-immersive VR guidance system combined with a two-tier strategy to help students learn geology knowledge. The two-tier test VR guidance system not only improved the students’ learning achievement in natural science, but also enhanced their learning motivation, and help students answer questions and solve problems more effectively
7	Checa and Bustillo (2020)	Review article		*			The study aimed to identify the factual standards of the proposed solutions and the differences between training and learning applications. The study provided recommendations for the improvement of serious games in immersive VR-environments to the enhancement of both learning and training tasks
8	Connors et al. (2014)	Research article		*	*		For individuals who are blind, navigating independently in an unfamiliar environment represents a considerable challenge. Virtual environments and gaming in the development of mental spatial representations can facilitate the transfer of spatial knowledge and further, can be used by individuals who are blind for navigation in real-world environments
9	Dalgarno and Lee (2010)	Research article		*	*		This article explored the potential learning benefits of three-dimensional (3-D) virtual learning environments (VLEs). The authors identified a series of learning affordances: spatial knowledge representation, greater opportunities for experiential learning, increased motivation/engagement, improved contextualisation of learning and collaborative learning
10	De Freitas (2018)	Review article		*			To the question: are games effective learning tools, the answer from the research is overwhelmingly positive. Despite resistance to the adoption of game-based approaches in schools, colleges and universities, like online learning, it will be a matter of time before the cost benefits drive uptake widely and the full implication of the research is fully understood
11	Dixon et al. (2019)	Research article	*	*			Immersive VR environments may offer the advantages of both contrived and natural environment training settings, providing structure to create repeated learning opportunities in a safe and realistic environment. The current study evaluated the effectiveness of a VR safety skills training environment in teaching children with ASD to cross the street with very promising results
12	Erhel and Jamet (2019)	Research article		*			The authors explored the relationship between goal specificity, flow experience and learning outcomes in educational computer games. A nonspecific goal, as opposed to a specifically defined goal, enhances comprehension, but not memorization and affects reading strategies. Also, they concluded a beneficial influence of flow experience on both memorization and comprehension
13	Fokides and Chachlaki (2020)	Research article		*			The study presented the results for a 3D multi-user VR for raising awareness of environmental issues. The target group was 326 students aged 10–12-years old divided into three groups according to taught material: (1) printed material, (2) web-based application, and (3) VR. The VR had a notable impact on students’ attitudes towards seals protection compared to the other tools
14	Fowler (2015)	Research article		*			The aim of this paper was to build upon Dalgarno and Lee's model of learning in three-dimensional (3-D) virtual learning environments (VLEs) and to extend their road map for further research in this area. The paper adopted a “design for learning” perspective and provided a combined framework to those designing learning activities in 3-D VLEs
15	Freina and Ott (2015)	Review article		*			This paper is a Review article of the advantages and potentials in the use of Immersive VR in Education (2013–2014). It examines the use of VR in general, and immersive VR in particular, for adult or university students training, and the possible advantages for children and some kinds of cognitive disabilities. The paper outlined strategies that could be carried out to verify these ideas
16	Girard et al. (2013)	Review article		*			Computer-assisted learning is known to be an effective tool for improving learning in both adults and children. The objective of this research was to review the results of experimental studies designed to examine the effectiveness of games on players’ learning and engagement. Games potentials illustrate why it is important to continue to study their effectiveness
17	Granic et al. (2014)	Review article		*			Video games are a ubiquitous part of almost all children’s and adolescents’ lives. The authors summarized the research on the positive effects of playing video games, focusing on four main domains: cognitive (e.g. attention), motivational (e.g. resilience in the face of failure), emotional (e.g. mood management), and social (e.g. prosocial behaviour) benefits
18	Jeong et al. (2015)	Research article	*				This qualitative approach study aimed to understand the overall experiences of students using notebooks in class. Interview data were collected from 23 Korean college students at a Korean University. The results implied that appropriate methods of technology usage are needed and that the support of an instructor is essential to achieve fully beneficial use of notebooks in class
19	Kaimara et al. (2019a, b)	Research article		*	*		Serious games (SGS) are gaining an ever-increasing interest of many scholars regarding learning. This quantitative research focused on students’ characteristics and factors that affect learning experience when playing 2D or 3D SGs. The results revealed that other learners’ skills beyond demographics such as self-regulation, spatial cognition and mental rotation should be considered
20	Kaimara et al. (2020a, b)	Research article		*	*		The main objective focused on the correlation of the University students’ views that were sharing common characteristics, like gender, information and communication technology skills, game playing experience, and specific scientific background with factors that related to the gameplay as well as the learning effectiveness
21	Kenny and Gunter (2011)	Research article		*			Video games are one of the fastest-growing elements of informal, virtual learning. In this article, the authors presented a design and evaluation rubric that appears to overcome many of the shortcomings in educational games currently on the market
22	Kim et al. (2020)	Research article	*				In this paper, the authors introduced and demonstrated the benefits of a new type of treatment, namely, an eye-contact game that successfully exploits mixed reality technology with head-mounted display. ADHD children, after participating in the treatment sessions, the omission/commission errors which were evaluated in an attention test decreased significantly
23	Koops et al. (2016)	Research article		*	*		Computer games, based on physics simulations, have been utilized to provide an alternative learning tool. In this research, the authors investigated if commercial entertainment games can be used to overcome misconceptions of Newton’s laws of motion. They concluded that self-designed educational games induce a significantly higher learning gain than commercial entertainment game
24	Lamb et al. (2018)	Review article		*			The purpose of this meta-analysis was to characterize and compare outcomes related to serious educational games, serious games, and educational simulations as they are presented in the educational literature. The examined studies suggest that ES, SGs, and SEGs do not differ in a statistically significant way when compared to traditional instruction but do differ from each other
25	Makransky et al. (2019)	Research article				*	The objective was to compare the effectiveness of an immersive VR simulation, a desktop VR simulation, and a conventional text-based manual for delivering laboratory safety training. Significant differences were observed favouring the immersive and desktop VR compared to the text on solving problems, perceived enjoyment, intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy
26	Malihi et al. (2020)	Research article			*		The aim of this study was to examine the safety and usability of these systems for children with ASD. Children with ASD indicated that HMDs improve spatial presence and realism and 74% of 35 participants preferred using HMDs over monitor-displayed video. These findings provided preliminary evidence to support the safety and usability of HMDs-VR for children with ASD
27	Mayer (2019)	Review article		*	*	*	Visionaries offer strong claims for the educational benefits of computer games, but there is a need to test those claims with rigorous scientific research and ground them in evidence-based theories of how people learn. Future research is needed to pinpoint the cognitive, motivational, affective, and social processes that underlie learning with educational computer games
28	Molina-Carmona et al. (2018)	Research article			*		The authors hypothesised that it is possible to design VR learning activities that can help students to develop their spatial ability. To prove their hypothesis, they had conducted an experiment consisting of training the students using an on-purpose VR learning application. The conclusion is that VR learning activities have shown to improve spatial ability
29	Newbutt et al. (2020)	Research article		*			The authors sought to place children with ASD examining the potential of VR HMDs used in classrooms. Students identified several potential usages for HMDs such as relaxing/feeling calm, being able to explore somewhere virtually before visiting the real place and developing learning opportunities. HMDs were reported as enjoyable, physically and visually comfortable, easy to use
30	Nolin et al. (2016)	Research article	*				The majority of neuropsychological studies using virtual reality have dealt with adults while studies with children and adolescents are relatively scarce. Of the few studies which have been conducted with children, data were mostly generated using the Virtual Classroom Clinica. ClinicaVR is recommended as an assessment tool for selective and sustained attention
31	Palaus et al. (2017)	Review article	*		*	*	The authors aimed to understand the relationship between the use of video games and their neural correlates. Despite the heterogeneity of the field of study, it has been possible to establish a series of links between the neural and cognitive aspects, particularly regarding attention, cognitive control, visuospatial skills, cognitive workload, and reward processing
32	Parong and Mayer (2020)	Research article	*		*	*	The goal of the study was to examine the effects of playing an immersive VR game that included a collection of gamified cognitive tasks, on specific components of cognition, including perceptual attention, mental rotation, working memory, visualization, visual field of view, and visual processing speed. No evidence that brain training games improve specific components of cognition
33	Passig et al. (2016)	Research article		*		*	The main objective of this research was to study the degree to which the learning process in a dynamic assessment procedure using a computerized 3D Immersive Virtual Reality (3D IVR) framework contributes to the cognitive modifiability of children. The findings indicate that teaching in a 3D IVR environment contributed to the children's cognitive modifiability
34	Reid Chassiakos et al. (2016)	Review article	*	*			The use of digital media has evidence-based benefits including early learning, exposure to new ideas and knowledge, and increased opportunities for social contact and support. Also, risks of such media include negative effects on attention. To promote wellness in children and adolescents, it is important to set an appropriate balance between screen time/online time and other activities
35	Roettl and Terlutter (2018)	Research article		*	*	*	The authors analysed how an identical video game that is either played in a 2D, stereoscopic 3D or Head-Mounted-Display (HMD) VR version is experienced by the players, and how brands that are placed in the video game are affected. A post hoc study shows that cognitive load was highest in the VR game and lowest in the 3D game
36	Spence and Feng (2010)	Review article	*		*		The authors reviewed studies that investigate the ability of video games to modify processes in spatial cognition. Several experiments have shown that playing action games induces changes in several sensory, perceptual, and attentional abilities that are important for many tasks in spatial cognition. Action video games have a beneficial effect on complex tasks such as mental rotation
37	Weerdmeester et al. (2016)	Research article	*				The study assessed the feasibility and effectiveness of a full-body-driven intervention videogame targeted at decreasing ADHD symptoms, specifically inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, and motor deficiency. Children who played the game improved in several areas with only a short amount of gameplay (1.5 h in total), and their satisfaction with the game was high
38	Zaharias et al. (2017)	Research article		*	*		In this study, two versions (2D and 3D) of a serious educational game on geography, were developed for elementary schools. Both versions had a positive impact on learning. 2D version had a greater impact compared to 3D, regarding learning, while the 3D version had a greater impact on motivation to learn and user experience