Table 2.

Important features of the life‐history strategy of Phlyctinus callosus

Life stage	Phenology and relation to host	Other relevant information
Egg	Females lay their eggs on grasses and other plant matter at, or just below the soil surface, or in loose organic litter (May, 1966; Barnes and Pringle, 1989). Most eggs are laid close to weeds or grasses in orchards (Barnes, 1987). Eggs are usually laid in batches of ˜ 20 (Dlamini et al., 2019a,b) although batches can consist of up to 70 eggs. Batches are laid at intervals over a 7‐day period and eggs hatch after 7–14 days depending on temperature (May, 1966).	Based on data in Walker (1980), the threshold for egg development is estimated to be 6.0°C with ˜ 125 degree days required for egg development. Eggs can tolerate 12 weeks at 5°C (Walker, 1980).
Larva	Newly hatched larvae burrow underground to feed on the roots of grasses, ornamental bulbs, corms and root vegetables (May, 1966). Larvae develop feeding on roots, most larvae are found within 15 cm of the soil surface, (Barnes, 1989b). In South Africa, larvae can be found every month of the year with peak numbers occurring during the winter and the lowest numbers in the summer (Barnes, 1989a).	The larvae over‐winter in the soil and progress through a variable number of instars. There are usually between 6 and 8 larval instars but there can be from 4 to 11 (Walker, 1980; Barnes, 1989b).
Pupa	Larvae form pupal chambers in the soil; pupation occurs within 5 cm of soil surface (Barnes, 1989b)	The pupal stage lasts 1–3 weeks (Dlamini et al., 2009a).
Adult	Adults emerge from the soil and move to woody fruit trees and vines. Adults cannot fly so need to walk and climb up trunks and stems where they feed on aerial parts of fruit trees (leaves and fruit surfaces) (Pryke and Samways, 2007). Adults feed and mate during the night and spend the day in the leaf litter on the ground in the vicinity of the host plant; in South African vineyards during warm weather adults shelter under bark of vine, in cool weather adults shelter in grape bunches (Pryke and Samways, 2007).	Sexual reproduction is reported in South Africa where both males and females are found (Barnes, 1989a). However, in New Zealand, May (1966) reports P. callosus as being parthenogenetic (i.e. growth and development of embryos occur without fertilisation). A thorough review of life‐history strategies of the Entiminae (the subfamily in which P. callosus sits) by Marvaldi et al. (2014) does not suggest P. callosus as being one of the rare beetle species capable of parthenogenesis.