Table 1.

Effects of cadmium exposure on immune cells under experimental conditions in vitro.

Immune system	Immune cell	Cell line	Cd dose	Exposure duration	Cellular effects	Reference
Innate immunity	Macrophages	Mice peritoneal macrophages	8.0×10-3 mg/L; 8.0×10-2 mg/L; 8.0×10-1 mg/L	30 min	Phagocytic capacity was significantly reduced	(59)
		Rat lung macrophage line NR8383 cells	10 μg/mL	2 h; 24 h	The Fc-RIIB receptor level is abnormal and causes cell damage	(60)
		Chicken peritoneal macrophages	20 μM; 50 μM	12 h	Led to dose-dependent cytotoxicity and abnormal immune response	(46)
		Mouse alveolar macrophage cell lines	50 μM	3 h	Promoted increased macrophage glycolytic function with enhanced extracellular acidification rate, glycolytic metabolites, and lactate excretion	(61)
		Human acute monocytic leuke- mic THP-1 cell line	0.1 μM; 1.0 μM; 2.5 μM; 5.0 μM; 10 μM; 20 μM; 40 μM; 100 μM	4 h	Cd results in immune dysfunction in macrophages through inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway	(62)
		Mouse resident peritoneal macrophages	5 μM; 10 μM; 20 μM; 30 μM; 40 μM; 50 μM	18 h	Cd produce an important impact on arachidonic acid turnover in macrophages	(63)
		Murine macrophage-like cell line RAW 264.7	0.1 mM; 0.3 mM; 1 mM;3 mM	24 h	Cd exposure generated oxidative stress and decreased the inflammatory responses	(42)
		Murine Macrophage Cell Line RAW 264.7	0.01 μM; 0.1 μM; 10 μM	2 h	Cd alone caused a dose-dependent decreased viability of exposed cells	(64)
	Mast cells	Mouse mast cell MC/9	0.01 μM; 0.1 μM; 1 μM; 10 μM; 100 μM	24 h	Mast cells had full dose-response depletion of glutathione below cytotoxic levels and mast cells would be more susceptible to oxidative stress	(65)
	Neutrophils	Common carp neutrophils	10 µM	2 h	Cd-induced neutrophil apoptosis and immunosuppression	(44)
		chicken neutrophils	10-6 M	12 h; 24 h; 36 h; 48 h	Cd-induced immune suppression, inflammatory response, and apoptosis via endoplasmic reticulum stress	(41)
	Natural killer (NK) cells	K562 cells	100 μM	1 h	Cd inhibited the cytotoxic activities of effector cells prestimulated with IL-2, which mostly consist of NK cells	(66)
Adaptive immunity	T-lymphocyte (T-cells)	Male BALB/c mice thymocyte	10 mM; 25 mM; 50 mM	6 h; 12 h; 18 h	Cd-induced T-cell apoptosis and changes the CD4+/CD8+ ratio	(36)
		Mice spleen cells	10 μM	24 h	Cd exposure suppresses the proliferation of T-cells	(67)
		T-cells were isolated from healthy human	0.003 µM; 0.03 µM; 0.33 µM; 3.33 µM; 33.33 µM; 66.66 µM	20 min; 40 min; 60 min; 90 min; 120 min	cadmium depleted T lymphocytes GSH to a harmful extent	(68)
		Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from healthy donors	0.01334 μM; 0.04448 μM; 0.1334 μM; 0.4448 μM 1.334 μM; 4.448 μM 13.34 μM 44.48 μM 133.4 μM 444.8 μM	24 h	Cd polarizes the immune response toward type-2 in cells stimulated via T-cell receptors	(33)
	B-lymphocyte (B-cells)	Female DBA/2J mice B-cells	0.1 μM; 1 μM; 10 μM; 100 Mm;10000 μM	3 h	Cd has an early inhibitory effect on B-cell activation	(69)
		Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from healthy adult	5 μM; 25 μM; 50 μM	24 h; 48 h	Only IgE but not IgG synthesis of purified B-cells were inhibited by Cd	(1)
		Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from healthy adult	0.01 μM; 0.1 μM 1 μM; 2 μM 5 μM; 10 μM	24 h; 72 h; 144 h; 14 d	The viability of B-cells decreases with the increase of Cd concentration	(70)
		B-cell line Raji	5 μM; 10 μM 15 μM; 20 μM 25 μM; 30 μM 35 μM; 40 μM 50 μM; 75 μM 100 μM	18 h	Cd-induced apoptosis in a dose-dependent manner in the Raji B-cell line	(30)
		Human Ramos B cells	0. 1 μM; 1 μM 2.5 μM; 5 μM	24 h	Cd exposure induced apoptosis, which was dependent on Cd-induced vacuole membrane protein 1 expression and autophagy	(71)
		B-cells were isolated from healthy human volunteer blood sample	0.003 µM; 0.03 µM; 0.33 µM; 3.33 µM; 33.33 µM; 66.66 µM	20 min; 40 min; 60 min; 90 min; 120 min	cadmium depleted B lymphocytes GSH to a harmful extent	(68)