Table 3.
Examples of the four strategies identified as important to achieving a more sustainable 2030
| Case study 1: Science and health communication |
| At the beginning of the twentieth century, all of the oysters in New York Harbour had been eaten, reefs had been dredged or covered in silt and the water quality was extremely poor (Yozzo et al. 2004). However, by the turn of the twenty-first century, environmental laws like the Clean Water Act meant improved water quality to the extent that oysters could be re-established. The Billion Oyster Project (BOP; https://billionoysterproject.org/) is a long-term initiative, run in conjunction with New York City schools, to restore one billion live oysters to the New York Harbor over a 20-year period. The premise of BOP is that secondary school students can and should play a direct, authentic role in restoring their local environment, and that the practice of teaching and learning is enhanced as the work and study of keystone species and habit restoration is integrated into curricula and school-based activities (Janis et al. 2016). To date, 30,000 oysters have been restored and a new Ecosystem Engineers curriculum has been developed—covering topics such as oyster anatomy, how oysters’ clean water, the food web in New York Harbour and oyster reef construction (https://billionoysterproject.org/). Furthermore, the program has had significant educational benefits, including for marginalised students within the community (Birney and McNamara 2018; Caref and Lawrence 2018) |
| Case study 2: Knowledge exchange |
| In many marine ecosystems, sharks play an ecologically important role as apex predators (Heithaus et al. 2012). Thus, declining shark populations due to overfishing and climate change are a significant cause for concern (Chin et al. 2010; Strickland 2017). However, sharks also present a water safety risk in many areas of the world, with the number of unprovoked shark bites, while rare, on the rise (Chapman and McPhee 2016). Shark encounters or a perceived change in the risk of encounters, for example through media coverage, can alter the way people use and enjoy the ocean for swimming and water sports (Gibbs and Warren 2015; McCagh et al. 2015) potentially impacting on human health. In regions of Australia with a relatively high number of shark encounters, state governments and local authorities have instigated shark mitigation programs (e.g. phone apps, drum lines, nets, drones, helicopter warning systems) to reduce the risk of human-shark encounters (Neff 2012). However, there is only a nascent understanding of recreational ocean user’s perceptions of risk, and how they respond to mitigation measures (Pepin-Neff and Wynter 2018). In a project funded by the New South Wales State Government, knowledge exchange between researchers, managers and the coastal community (including young adults) through workshop events at surf lifesaving clubs and schools, is increasing understanding and awareness of three relevant aspects of shark encounters: (i) shark behaviour, movement, and abundance, (ii) the different types of mitigation methods and devices, (iii) people’s perceptions of risk of encounters, and (iv) ocean user’s behavioural responses to different shark mitigation measures. In this ongoing project, workshops are leading to a shared understanding among ocean users, authorities and scientists that there are links between having healthy shark populations and a healthy ocean, and that both were valued by all stakeholder groups. Given that healthy shark populations are valued by many members of the public (Gibbs and Warren 2015; Pepin-Neff and Wynter 2018), better understanding of people’s responses to non-lethal mitigation measures is important. Healthy minds and bodies from surfing, swimming, and other recreational activities can be encouraged while non-lethal mitigation measures (combined with sustainable fisheries management) will help ensure healthy shark populations |
| Case study 3: Incentives |
| Food Smart City (https://www.tcd.ie/tceh/projects/foodsmartdublin/), a collaborative project developed by Trinity College Dublin, is working in Ireland to encourage sustainable seafood consumption by leveraging coastal cultural heritage, such as traditional recipes, and engaging with restaurateurs, educators and ECO-UNESCO (Ireland's Environmental Education and Youth Organisation). The project is developing a framework of knowledge exchange and action that addresses the global and topical issue of sustainable food from the oceans (e.g., SDGs 2, 4, 11). A core component of the project are experiential food events around the city which are aimed at incentivising Irish people to consider consumption of local sustainable seafood. These ‘casual, accessible’ events engage people in fun experiences of seafood that are affordable and healthy for both people and the environment. As a result, Irish communities are being incentivised to alter consumption patterns to preference local food, produced sustainably, with positive outcomes for human nutrition and ocean health |
| Case study 4: Rules & regulations |
| One of the most comprehensively documented case studies of how participatory approaches to governance can enhance fisheries sustainability comes from the Sumilon and Apo Islands in the Philippines (Alcala and Russ 2006). With a long history of destructive fishing practices by large commercial fishing companies, the depletion of local fish stocks and degradation of associated ecosystems were threatening the livelihoods of local communities (Russ and Alcala 1999). At the time, the management of local fisheries was under a centralized governance system that encouraged greater use (exploitation) of natural resources. That is, regulations did not limit catch, fishing effort, or the sizes of landed fish. However, acknowledgement of the shortcomings of this approach resulted in a shift towards participatory governance that devolved responsibility to local governments and local communities (Pomeroy and Carlos 1997). Alcala and Russ (2006) conclude that this institutional shift from a centralized governance system towards a more inclusive system empowered the various stakeholders, which underpinned the recovery of fish stocks, fisheries, and livelihoods in the area |