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. 2021 Aug 4;11:15852. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-95323-w

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Flower flies can defecate enough live Crithidia bombi cells to infect bumble bee hosts: (a) Total number of C. bombi cells found in the first fecal events of inoculated Eristalis tenax flies (n = 30); (b) Probability of C. bombi infection of inoculated Bombus impatiens bumble bees (n = 9–12 per dose). In both figures, the vertical dotted lines indicate the mean number of C. bombi (239 cells) defecated in the first fecal events of E. tenax flies. In figure (b), the horizontal dotted line indicates that the probability of infection at 239 cells is 35%. 95% confidence intervals are shown as error bars for each treatment and the shaded area on the dose–response curve. “Side view of Eristalis tenax” image by Ken Perry, licensed under CC0 1.0. “Side view of Bombus impatiens” image by Christopher Johnson, licensed under CC0 1.0.