Table 1.

Characteristics of different types of cell death.

Type of cell death	Morphological characteristics	Biochemical features	Detection	Regulation
Ferroptosis	Small mitochondria, increased mitochondrial membrane densities, breakdown of cristae, and outer membrane rupture	Iron overload and lipid peroxidation	Transmission electron microscope,Phen Green SK probe, C11-BODIPY probe, GPX4, Ptgs2	Positive regulator: RAS, NOX, p53, ACSL4, Hmox1, NCOA4 Negative regulator: GPX4, Nrf2, HSPB1, SLC7A11, FSP1
Apoptosis	cell shrinkage, membrane blebbing, chromatin condensation, and formation of apoptotic bodies	DNA fragmentation	Tunel assay, Cytc, cleaved caspase-3, cleaved caspase-9	Positive regulator: Bax family, p53 Negative regulator: Bcl-2 family
Necroptosis	Cytoplasm and organelles swelling, plasma membrane rupture	ROS production, damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) release	RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL phosphorylation	Positive regulator: RIPK1, RIPK3, MLKL Negative regulator: Flotillin, syntenin-1
Autophagy	accumulation of double-membrane vesicles	Increased lysosomal activity	Transmission electron microscope, LC3-I, LC3-II	Positive regulator: ATG family, Beclin 1 Negative regulator: mTOR