Table 1.

Risk factors associated with the wildlife trade.

Trade phase	Trade activity	Risk factor	Transmission pathway
1)	Hunting and trapping	Penetrating wildlife habitat Injuries during capture (bites, scratches, other)	Indirect physical contact Direct physical contact Body fluids
	Butchering	Contact with animal's skin, organs, blood, etc. Injuries during butchering (knives, bone fragments)	Direct physical contact Body fluids (specifically bloodborne) Body fluids (specifically bloodborne)
2)	Transport of non-live wildlife products	Raw bushmeat, inadequate preservation and cleaning of bushmeat and other products	Indirect physical contact Foodborne Faecal-oral
	Translocation of live animals	High-density unnatural groupings of wildlife species (Accidental) translocation and release of vectors	Cross-species pathogen spread and amplification Vector-borne
	Legal wildlife transport	Lack of regulation, pathogen surveillance, and enforcement	(In)direct physical contact Body fluids Foodborne Faecal-oral Airborne Vector-borne
	Illegal wildlife transport	Lack of wildlife transport regulations, unknown health status of animals	(In)direct physical contact Body fluids Foodborne Faecal-oral Airborne Vector-borne
3)	Sale of wildlife on bushmeat markets and live animal markets	High-density unnatural groupings of wildlife species, daily carryover (Accidental) release of vectors Unhygienic conditions, presence of scavengers Live butchering	Cross-species pathogen spread and amplification Vector-borne (In)direct physical contact Body fluids Foodborne Faecal-oral Airborne Vector-borne Body fluids (specifically bloodborne)
4)	Consumption of bushmeat	Driver of hunting, butchering, transport, and sale Touching of infected bushmeat Consumption of infected bushmeat	(In)direct physical contact Body fluids Foodborne Faecal-oral Airborne Vector-borne Direct physical contact Foodborne
	Use of wildlife products (medicine, ornamentals, apparel, other materials)	Driver of hunting, butchering, transport, and sale Use of traditional medicine containing processed wildlife products Use/wear of other wildlife products	(In)direct physical contact Body fluids Foodborne Faecal-oral Airborne Vector-borne Direct physical contact Foodborne Faecal-oral Direct physical contact Faecal-oral
	Keeping live wild animals	Driver of hunting, transport and sale Close contact between wild animal and caretaker, risk of injuries (scratches/bites) Unnatural groupings of wildlife species	(In)direct physical contact Body fluids Foodborne Faecal-oral Airborne Vector-borne (In) direct physical contact Body fluids Faecal-oral Airborne Cross-species pathogen spread and amplification

This table summarises zoonotic spillover risk factors associated with the wildlife trade. These risk factors are grouped according to wildlife trade phases 1–4 and specific trade activities within this phase. Phase 1: hunting, trapping, and butchering. Phase 2: transportation. Phase 3: sale. Phase 4: consumption and use. The risk factor indicates what particular behaviour/condition concerning the trade activity poses a zoonotic spillover risk. Hereafter, the zoonotic pathogen's transmission pathway is shown, i.e., what transmission pathways do the risk factors promote.