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Main sources of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in cells. ROS are primarily generated by electron leaks from mitochondrial complexes I–III (CI–CIII) and ROS-producing enzymes: NADPH oxidases, cyclooxygenases, and lipoxygenases that catalyze the oxygenation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Additionally, protein oxidation on the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and ER-related stress add to the ROS pool.
