Table 1.
Characteristics of the main renal biomarkers indicative of cardiorenal and renocardiac syndrome progression.
| Marker | Biological Function | Dosage Site | Clinical Setting | Proposed Cut-Offs |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cystatine C | Protease Inhibitor | Blood | AKI | >1.5 mg/L (blood) |
| Galectin 3 | Lectin function: cell growth and differentiation | Blood | CHF | >13.5 for GFR >60 >18.1 for GFR < 60 |
| NGAL | Proliferative and antiapoptotic action | Urine and Blood | AKI CHF |
>50 microg/L (urine) |
| NAG | Lysosomial Enzyme | Urine | AKI CHF |
>50 mU/mg (urine) |
| KIM 1 | Tubular Regeneration | Urine | AKI CHF |
From 10 to 15 mg/ng (urine) |
| FABPs | Free Fatty acids binding proteins | Urine | AKI | >15 microg/g Cr (urine) |
| TIMP2 & IGFBP7 | G1 Cell cycle arrest markers | Urine | AKI | >0.3 |
| P-Cresyl Sulfate (PCS) Indoxyl Sulfate (IS) |
Uremic Toxins | Blood | Reno-cardiac syndrome | 100 times higher than in healthy subjects |
NGAL: N-acetyl beta glucosaminidase. NAG: N-acetyl beta glucosaminidase. KIM 1: Kidney injury molecule. FABPs: Fatty acid-binding proteins; TIMP2: Tissue inhibitor of metallo-proteinase 2; IGFBP7: insulin-like growth factor–binding protein 7; AKI, acute kidney injury; CHF, chronic heart failure; GFR, glomerular filtration rate.