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. 2021 Jul 29;22(15):8162. doi: 10.3390/ijms22158162

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© 2021 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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General structures of metabolites produced by gut microbiota and known effects on immune responses. Green arrow: upregulation, Red arrow: downregulation. Cell population: cells activated by metabolites. T cell: T lymphocyte, Treg: regulatory T lymphocyte, B cell: B lymphocyte, Neu: netrophil, Mon: monocyte, MP: mononuclear phagocyte, DC dendritic cell, EP: endothelial cells, EC: epithelial cells, Foxp3+ Treg: regulatory T lymphocyte Foxp3+, pDC: plasmacytoid dendritic cells, iNKT: invariant natural killer T cells.