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. 2021 Aug 7;28:58. doi: 10.1186/s12929-021-00754-2

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 3 — Some TEs function as enhancers during mouse development. TEs play a role in determining cell fate during different phases of mouse development by regulating transcription through cis activation. In two-cell to four-cell preimplantation embryos, ZSCAN4 binds to MERVLs to initiate zygotic genome activation. When the embryo develops from the four-cell stage into a blastocyst, TE-containing enhancers recruit different transcription factors to differentiate the embryo into ESCs and TSCs. During ESC differentiation, OCT4, NANOG and SOX2 are recruited by TE-containing enhancers. During TSC differentiation, ELF5, EOMES and CDX2 are recruited by other TE-containing enhancers. During the mitosis-to-meiosis transition, spermatogonia differentiate into the stages within PSs and round spermatids, and enhancer-like ERVs recruit A-MYB to facilitate meiosis-related gene expression. TEs, transposable elements; ZSCAN4, zinc finger and SCAN domain containing protein 4C; MERVL, mouse endogenous retrovirus L; ESC, embryonic stem cell; OCT4, octamer-binding transcription factor 4; SOX2, SRY (sex determining region Y)-box 2; TSC, trophoblast stem cell; ELF5, E74-like factor 5 (ETA domain transcription factor); EOMES, eomesodermin; CDX2, caudal-type homeobox transcription factor 2; dpp, days postpartum; SSC, spermatogonial stem cell; A-MYB, A-myoblastosis protein