TABLE 2.

Summary of linear phenotypic selection gradients (± SE) extracted from the literature for net selection (β_C), non-pollinator-mediated selection (β_HP) and pollinator-mediated selection (Δβ_Poll) on flower color estimated in natural plant populations and experimental populations.

Species	Pollinator	Trait	βC	βHP	ΔβPoll	Reference
Natural populations
I.tenuituba, I. aggregata	Hummingbirds, hawkmoths	Optical density	na	na	0.01 ± 0.12	Campbell et al. (1997)*
Mimulus luteus	Insects, hummingbirds	Guide shape CVA1	na	na	0.011 ± 0.06	Medel et al. (2003)*
Mimulus luteus	Insects, hummingbirds	Guide shape CVA2	na	na	−0.007 ± 0.06
Claytonia virginica	Solitary bees	Corolla color	0.019	na	na	Frey (2004)
W. albomarginata	Solitary bees	R440/R530	na	na	0.179 ± 0.45	Campbell et al. (2012)*
W.albomarginata	Solitary bees	PC1 (Color hexagon distance)	na	na	−0.060 ± 0.44
Iris atropurpurea, Year 1	Eucera bees	Anthocyanin conc.	0.203 ± 0.15	0.149 ± 0.17	0.054	Lavi and Sapir (2015)
Iris atropurpurea, Year 2	Eucera bees	Anthocyanin conc.	0.116 ± 0.09	0.173 ± 0.09	−0.057
Iris haynei, Year 1	Eucera bees	Anthocyanin conc.	0.104 ± 0.13	0.081 ± 0.12	0.023
Iris haynei, Year 2	Eucera bees	Anthocyanin conc.	0.087 ± 0.11	0.102 ± 0.11	−0.015
Gentiana lutea	Bumblebees	PC1 (Yellowness)	0.238 ± 0.08	na	na	Veiga et al. (2015)
Anacamptis morio	Bumblebee queens	Brightness	0.28 ± 0.17	−0.130 ± 0.04	0.42	Sletvold et al. (2016)
Anacamptis morio	Bumblebee queens	Lip patch size	−0.25 ± 0.15	0.077 ± 0.04	−0.33
Anacamptis morio	Bumblebee queens	Lip patch contrast	0.50 ± 0.17	−0.017 ± 0.04	0.51
Anacamptis morio	Bumblebee queens	Lip spot area	−0.12 ± 0.14	0.018 ± 0.04	−0.14
Gymnadenia conopsea	Butterflies, flies	PC7 (Corolla color)	−0.056 ± 0.12	na	na	Gross et al. (2016)
Gymnadenia conopsea	Butterflies, flies	PC7 (Corolla color)	−0.077 ± 0.08	na	na
Gymnadenia conopsea	Butterflies, flies	PC7 (Corolla color)	−0.027 ± 0.06	na	na
Gymnadenia conopsea	Butterflies, flies	PC7 (Corolla color)	−0.051 ± 0.05	na	na
Gymnadenia conopsea	Butterflies, flies	PC7 (Corolla color)	0.021 ± 0.07	na	na
Gymnadenia conopsea	Butterflies, flies	PC7 (Corolla color)	−0.085 ± 0.04	na	na
Gymnadenia conopsea	Butterflies, flies	PC7 (Corolla color)	−0.090 ± 0.06	na	na
Caltha scaposa	Bees, flies	UV bulls-eye size	−0.08 ± 0.06	6.05 ± 0.88	−6.13	Zhang et al. (2017)
Caltha scaposa	Bees, flies	UV proportion	0.14 ± 0.06	−4.63 ± 0.68	4.77
Iris lutescens	Apoid bees	Anthocyanin conc.	−0.19 ± 0.002	n.s.	n.s.	Souto-Vilarósa et al. (2018)
Iris lutescens	Apoid bees	Flavonoid conc.	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.
Iris lutescens, yellow	Apidae	Anthocyanin conc.	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.
Iris lutescens, yellow	Apidae	Flavonoid conc.	0.35 ± 0.01	na	n.s.
Iris lutescens, purple	Apidae	Anthocyanin conc.	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.
Iris lutescens, purple	Apidae	Flavonoid conc.	−0.20 ± 0.01	na	n.s.
Iris pumila, purple	Apidae	Anthocyanin conc.	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.
Iris pumila, blue	Apidae	Anthocyanin conc.	−0.25 ± 0.06	0.42± 0.003	−0.67
Iris pumila, yellow	Apidae	Anthocyanin conc.	na	na	na
Iris pumila, purple	Apidae	Flavonoid conc.	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.
Iris pumila, blue	Apidae	Flavonoid conc.	n.s.	n.s.	n.s.
Iris pumila, yellow	Apidae	Flavonoid conc.	na	na	na
A.coriophora coriophora	Bees	PC1 (RGB values)	0.002 ± 0.04	na	na	Joffard et al. (2020)
A.coriophora coriophora	Bees	PC1 (RGB values)	0.08 ± 0.12	na	na
A.coriophora coriophora	Bees	PC1 (RGB values)	−0.02 ± 0.05	na	na
A.coriophora fragrans	Bees	PC1 (RGB values)	−0.02 ± 0.06	na	na
A.coriophora fragrans	Bees	PC1 (RGB values)	0.02 ± 0.05	na	na
A.coriophora martrinii	Bees	PC1 (RGB values)	−0.04 ± 0.08	na	na
Silene littorea	Bees, butterflies, Hadena	Anthocyanin conc.	−0.11 ± 0.10	na	na	Rodriguez-Castañeda et al. (2020)
Silene littorea	Bees, butterflies, Hadena	Corolla color	−0.1 ± 0.17	na	na
Medicago sativa	Bees	Brightness	n.s.	na	na	Brunet et al. (2021)
Medicago sativa	Bees	Saturation	n.s.	na	na
Medicago sativa	Bees	Hue	n.s.	na	na
Experimental populations
I.tenuituba, I. aggregata	Hummingbirds, hawkmoths	Optical density	na	na	0.19 ± 0.05	Campbell et al. (1997)*
Lobelia siphilitica	Bumblebees	Brightness	−0.050 ± 0.06	0.111 ± 0.05	−0.161	Caruso et al. (2010)
Lobelia siphilitica	Bumblebees	Saturation	−0.019 ± 0.06	0.074 ± 0.05	−0.093
Lobelia siphilitica	Bumblebees	Hue	−0.019 ± 0.06	0.101 ± 0.05	−0.120
Penstemon digitalis	Bumblebees	Nectar guide	−0.003 ± 0.01	−0.005 ± 0.01	0.002	Parachnowitsch and Kessler (2010)
Penstemon digitalis	Bumblebees	Nectar guide	−0.02± 0.03	na	na	Parachnowitsch et al. (2012)
Lobelia siphilitica, H	Bumblebees	Brightness	−0.062 ± 0.04	na	na	Wassink and Caruso (2013)
Lobelia siphilitica, H	Bumblebees	Saturation	−0.017 ± 0.04	na	na
Lobelia siphilitica, H	Bumblebees	Hue	0.062 ± 0.04	na	na
Lobelia siphilitica, F	Bumblebees	Brightness	−0.015 ± 0.03	na	na
Lobelia siphilitica, F	Bumblebees	Saturation	0.115 ± 0.04	na	na
Lobelia siphilitica, F	Bumblebees	Hue	−0.012 ± 0.03	na	na
Centaurea cyanus	Bumblebees	PC1 (Brightness)	0.007	na	na	Renoult et al. (2013)
Centaurea cyanus	Bumblebees	PC2 (Blue-violet)	0.029	na	na
Centaurea cyanus	Bumblebees	PC3 (UV)	−0.061	na	na

Significant selection gradients at P < 0.05 are highlighted in bold. All selection gradients were estimated using multiple regression following the Lande and Arnold (1983) protocol. Multiple rows of the same species for the same trait correspond to different populations if not otherwise indicated. *Note that Campbell et al. (1997), Campbell et al. (2012), and Medel et al. (2003) estimated selection gradients based on pollinator visitations as fitness response rather than measurements of components of female fitness. I, Ipomopsis; W, Wahlenbergia; A, Anacamptis.; F, Female; H, Hermaphrodite.