Table 3. Covariate Prevalence by Exposure Status.
| Covariate | Person-days, No. (%) | |
|---|---|---|
| Multiple prescribers (n = 19 895 457) | 1 Prescriber (n = 33 093 859) | |
| Daily opioid dosage category, MMEs | ||
| <30 | 5 608 378 (28.2) | 12 448 020 (37.6) |
| 30-59 | 6 112 543 (30.7) | 10 262 114 (31.0) |
| 60-89 | 2 998 888 (15.1) | 3 952 059 (11.9) |
| 90-119 | 1 506 260 (7.6) | 1 639 809 (5.0) |
| ≥120 | 3 669 388 (18.4) | 4 791 857 (14.5) |
| Daily benzodiazepine dosage category, DMEs | ||
| ≤10 | 6 911 465 (34.7) | 13 334 184 (40.3) |
| 11-20 | 5 309 602 (26.7) | 9 144 673 (27.6) |
| 21-30 | 2 903 447 (14.6) | 4 613 289 (13.9) |
| 31-40 | 2 113 181 (10.6) | 2 844 639 (8.6) |
| ≥40 | 2 657 762 (13.4) | 3 157 074 (9.5) |
| Extended-release, long-acting opioid use | ||
| Yes | 4 933 599 (24.8) | 5 103 225 (15.4) |
| No | 14 961 858 (75.2) | 27 990 634 (84.6) |
| Mental health disorder | ||
| Yes | 18 329 630 (92.1) | 28 627 619 (86.5) |
| No | 1 565 827 (7.9) | 4 466 240 (13.5) |
| Substance use disorder | ||
| Yes | 4 234 076 (21.3) | 5 339 067 (16.1) |
| No | 15 661 381 (78.7) | 27 754 792 (83.9) |
| Tobacco use | ||
| Yes | 7 343 136 (36.9) | 11 351 163 (34.3) |
| No | 12 552 321 (63.1) | 21 742 696 (65.7) |
| Cancer | ||
| Yes | 5 800 407 (29.2) | 8 624 142 (26.1) |
| No | 14 095 050 (70.8) | 24 469 717 (73.9) |
| Elixhauser comorbidity flags, No.a | ||
| 0-1 | 1 883 945 (9.5) | 4 386 082 (13.3) |
| 2-3 | 4 118 753 (20.7) | 7 707 336 (23.3) |
| 4-5 | 4 646 989 (23.4) | 7 677 049 (23.2) |
| >5 | 9 245 770 (46.5) | 13 323 392 (40.3) |
| Age group, y | ||
| 12-25 | 54 752 (0.3) | 97 311 (0.3) |
| 26-44 | 1 571 341 (7.9) | 2 226 928 (6.7) |
| 45-64 | 9 959 096 (50.1) | 14 027 133 (42.4) |
| ≥65 | 8 310 268 (41.8) | 16 742 487 (50.6) |
| Sex | ||
| Female patients | 13 787 193 (69.3) | 21 529 676 (65.1) |
| Male patients | 6 108 264 (30.7) | 11 564 183 (34.9) |
| US Census region | ||
| Northeast | 1 183 680 (5.9) | 2 308 007 (7.0) |
| Midwest | 3 502 449 (17.6) | 5 987 635 (18.1) |
| South | 11 882 102 (59.7) | 18 394 483 (55.6) |
| West | 3 327 226 (16.7) | 6 403 734 (19.4) |
| Payer type | ||
| Commercial | 4 560 342 (22.9) | 7 547 069 (22.8) |
| Medicare Advantage | 15 335 115 (77.1) | 25 546 790 (77.2) |
| Year in which person-day occurred | ||
| 2017 | 10 696 376 (53.8) | 17 433 322 (52.7) |
| 2018 | 9 199 081 (46.2) | 15 660 537 (47.3) |
Abbreviations: DMEs, diazepam milligram equivalents; MMEs, morphine milligram equivalents.
a
Count excludes Elixhauser comorbidity flags related to mental health disorders, substance use disorders, and cancer.