Table 6.

Overview of the generation of analytical and descriptive themes

Descriptive themes based on the inductive coding of primary studies' findings	Analytical themes derived from the configuration of descriptive themes
▪ Targeting at areas with high‐risk of deforestation ▪ Targeting at low‐income groups ▪ Targeting at locality (e.g., access to roads, slope, type of forest)	Analytical theme 1: Targeting (design) PES programmes need to be carefully targeted at the most relevant programme participants to maximise environmental and social outcomes. Targeting is of particular importance to support social outcomes such as poverty reduction and equity objectives.
▪ Awareness of the programme ▪ Design of informational materials and campaigns ▪ Ease of access/signing up the programme ▪ Structure of the programme/contract ▪ Technical assistance	Analytical theme 2: Participation in the programme (implementation) Participation in PES programmes presents a key barrier to effective programme implementation. Participation is hindered by a lack of awareness and understanding of PES programmes with technical assistance and more relevant information campaigns presenting possible remedies.
▪ Governance structures and ownership ▪ Institution building as a programme mechanism ▪ Trust as a facilitator of programme success	Analytical theme 3: Programme governance and institutions building (design) PES programmes require strong governance structures within the communities in which they are implemented in order to monitor and ensure compliance and behaviour change. What is more, creating these governance structures presents a key mechanism through which programmes can achieve social objectives by supporting the building of local institutions and development structures a
Factors of adoption:  ▪ Existing levels of income ▪ Size of the land ▪ Availability of labour ▪ The opportunity cost of participation ▪ Social norms ▪ State and impact of environmental degradation	Analytical theme 4: Factors to determine programme take up (context) A range of factors determine the uptake of PES programmes. The most common factors for adoption identified referred to: existing levels of income, size of the land, availability of labour, the opportunity cost of participation, social norms and capital, and the state of the ecosystem service targeted
▪ Existing perceptions of nature and conversation ▪ Changing perceptions of nature and conversation ▪ State and impact of environmental degradation	Analytical theme 5: Perception of nature (context/design) Perceptions of nature influence the design and relevance of PES programmes. While existing support for environmental protection supports programme implementation, there is little empirical evidence that financial incentives lead to a monetisation of environmental behaviour

Abbreviations: PES, payment for environmental service.

^a This mechansism is largely identified in community‐level PES programmes rather than individual‐level programmes.