Table 2.
Comparison of adsorbents for endotoxin.
| Ligand | Substrate | Langmuir adsorption isotherm | Endotoxin clearance | Biocompatibility | References | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Qm | Kd | Endotoxin Solvent | Sorbent concentration | Initial/final endotoxin concentration | ||||
| Natural macromolecule | ||||||||
| Chitosan | Chitosan membrane | 0.28 mg/mL | 4.0 × 10−11 mol/L | Human IgG solution | 13.4 cm2 membrane filtrated with 12 mL solution | 116.4/4.1 EU/mL | N | Machado et al., 2006 |
| Chitosan | PVDF membrane | 21,400 EU/g | 0.5 EU/mL | Protein solution | 0.0565 m2 membrane filtrated with 20 mL solution | BSA: 5.0/0.73 EU/mL Lysozyme: 5.0/1.78 EU/mL |
N | Sun et al., 2005 |
| Chitosan FeCl3FeCl2 | Chitosan nanoparticle | NA | NA | Protein solution | 20 mg/mL nanoparticles incubated in solution | 2/ <0.02 μg/mL | N | Konwar et al., 2019 |
| Chitosan Fe3O4 | Chitosan microsphere | 2210.2 EU/g | 0.0213 EU/mL | NA | 0.05 g microsphere incubated in 2 mL solution | 17.20/9.58 EU/mL | N | Yi et al., 2012b |
| Chitosan Fe3O4 | Chitosan microsphere | 1792.1EU/g | 0.448 EU/mL | NA | 25 mg microspheres incubated in 2 mL solution | 73.70/51.30 EU/mL | N | Yi et al., 2012a |
| Chitosan | Hydrogel | NA | NA | Blood | 2 g hydrogels filled into a syringe with a 10 mL blood | 30.0/11.0 EU/mL | Y | Li et al., 2020 |
| LBP | PHA particle | NA | NA | Protein solution | 50 μL particles incubated in 1.0 mL solution | 50/0.05 EU/mL | N | Li et al., 2011a |
| Lysozyme | Agarose bead | NA | NA | Buffer solution | 100 μL sorbent incubated in 1 mL solution | 75.00/6.75 ng/mL | N | Levashov et al., 2019a |
| Lysozyme | Agarose bead | NA | NA | Buffer solution | 100 μL sorbent incubated in 1 mL solution | 50.0/5.9 ng/mL | N | Levashov et al., 2019b |
| P16 | MSP | NA | NA | Protein solution | Nanospheres incubated in solutions at 1 mg/mL | 12,500/undetected EU/mL | N | Tang et al., 2020 |
| ε-Poly-L-lysine | Cellulose particle | NA | 1.1 × 10−11 mol/L | Protein solution | 1 mg particles incubated with 2 mL solution | 32,000/ <10 pg/mL | N | Todokoro et al., 2002 |
| Synthetic macromolecule | ||||||||
| PCL | PCL nanoparticle | NA | NA | Aqueous solution | 50 μg/mL PCL nanoparticles incubated with solution | 5 × 105/1.06 × 105 EU/mL | N | Donnell et al., 2016 |
| PCL nano-particle | Cellulose acetate membrane | 2.8 × 106 EU/mL | NA | Aqueous solution | 1.8 cm2 membrane filtered with solution | 270/approximate 3 μg/mL | N | Razdan et al., 2019 |
| PVI | Silica gel particle | 3.5 × 106 EU/g | NA | NA | 50 mg particle incubated with 25 mL solution | 30/0.07 EU/mL | N | Li et al., 2011b |
| MDMIBr | Fe3O4 polydopamine | 58,000 EU/g | NA | Blood | NA | 17.7/14.6 EU/mL | Y | Shi et al., 2020 |
| Synthetic macromolecule | ||||||||
| Histidine | Silica gel particle | 1.2 mg/g | 1.35 μg/mL | Blood | 1.0 g particles circulated with 1,400 mL blood | 5/0.6 EU/mL | N | Zhang et al., 2007 |
| L-serine | Agarose bead | NA | NA | Blood | 0.13 g bead incubated with 0.6 mL serum | 1.011/0.219 EU/mL | N | Wei et al., 2007b |
| L-serine | PVDF membrane | NA | NA | Blood | 13 m2 membrane circulated with 80 mL blood | 100.0/53.7 EU/mL | Y | Gao et al., 2011 |
| L-serine | Polysulfone membrane | NA | NA | Blood | 100 cm2 membrane incubated with 10 mL blood | 0.465/0.093 EU/mL | N | Huang et al., 2013 |
| L-serine | PES membrane | 2,640 EU/g | 0.332 EU/mL | NA | NA | NA | Y | Zhao et al., 2020 |
| L-Phe | Polystyrene microsphere | 25.15 EU/g | NA | NA | NA | NA | Y | Dang et al., 2019 |
| Allantoin | – | H: 3 × 107 EU/g U: 4 × 105 EU/g |
H: 1 × 10−7 mol/L U: 1 × 10−10 mol/L |
Protein solution | 300 mg/mL allantoin incubated with solution | 1,000/ <1 EU/mL | N | Vagenende et al., 2013 |
| DMA | PMMA bead | NA | NA | Blood | 0.5 mL beads incubated with 4 mL blood | 1.310/0.401 EU/mL | Y | Zhi et al., 2005 |
| DMA | Agarose bead | 3.30 mg/mL | 1.79 × 10−2 mg/mL | NA | NA | NA | N | Wei et al., 2007a |
| DMA | Graphene oxide | 121,470 EU/g | 3.257 EU/mL | NA | NA | NA | N | Tapouk et al., 2019 |
| DAE | CNF | 1.1–2.5 mg/mL | 2.1–8.5 × 10−11 mol/L | Protein solution | 0.2 g adsorbent incubated with 4 mL solution | 160/ <0.01 EU/mL | N | Sakata et al., 2017 |
Part of data are estimated form literature.
NA data are not available according to the published papers. Y indicates “have been reported,” N indicates “not mentioned.”
PVDF, poly (vinylidene fluoride); BSA, bovine serum albumin; LBP, Human lipopolysaccharide-binding protein; PHA, polyhydroxyalkanoate; P16, a LPS specific binding peptide from Limulus anti-LPS factor; MSP, amine-functionalized mesoporous silica nanospheres; PCL, Poly-ε-caprolactone; PVI, Poly(1-vinyl imidazole); MDMIBr, 1-(12-mercaptododecyl)-3-methylimidazolium bromide; PES, polyethersulfone; Phe, phenylalanine; PMMA, polymethyl methacrylate; DMA, dimethylamine; DAE, diaminoethane; CNF, cellulose nanofiber.