Table 1.

Risk of Bias Assessment Instruments for Included Studies

Study design	Assessment instrument
Cross-sectional	Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute [NIH], 2014b)
Observational cohort
Before–after with no control group	Quality Assessment Tool for Before–After (Pre–Post) Studies with No Control Group (NIH, 2014a)
Randomized controlled trial	Risk of Bias Tool (Higgins et al. 2011)
Controlled before–after	Risk of Bias Tool (Higgins et al. 2011)
Mixed methods	Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (Pluye et al., 2011)
Secondary analysis of existing data	The REporting of studies Conducted using Observational Routinely collected health Data (RECORD) Statement (Benchimol et al., 2015)