Table 4.
Factors associated with COVID-19-related stigma
| Individual stigma towards patients with COVID-19 (N=5039) |
Individual stigma towards Wuhan residents (n=4628)† |
|||
| Model 1‡ aOR (95% CI) |
Model 2§ aOR (95% CI) |
Model 1‡ aOR (95% CI) |
Model 2§ aOR (95% CI) |
|
| Gender (ref: male) | ||||
| Female | 0.73 (0.51 to 1.05) | 0.79 (0.55 to 1.15) | 0.52 (0.36 to 0.76)** | 0.55 (0.38 to 0.81)** |
| Age (ref: ≤20) (years) | ||||
| 21–30 | 1.77 (0.81 to 3.83) | 1.67 (0.77 to 3.64) | 1.87 (0.93 to 3.77) | 1.80 (0.89 to 3.64) |
| 31–40 | 2.11 (0.88 to 5.05) | 2.08 (0.87 to 5.01) | 2.17 (0.97 to 4.87) | 2.14 (0.95 to 4.81) |
| 41–50 | 4.00 (1.82 to 8.79)** | 3.99 (1.81 to 8.83)** | 2.34 (1.09 to 5.04)* | 2.34 (1.09 to 5.05)* |
| ≥51 | 5.21 (2.31 to 11.73)*** | 5.28 (2.34 to 11.94)*** | 2.05 (0.88 to 4.76) | 2.03 (0.87 to 4.74) |
| Educational level (ref: junior high school or less) | ||||
| Senior high school and junior college | 0.85 (0.51 to 1.42) | 0.96 (0.57 to 1.60) | 0.94 (0.54 to 1.65) | 1.06 (0.60 to 1.85) |
| College and above | 0.67 (0.37 to 1.22) | 0.82 (0.45 to 1.51) | 0.64 (0.34 to 1.21) | 0.76 (0.40 to 1.45) |
| Ethnicity (ref: Han) | ||||
| Minorities | 2.68 (1.66 to 4.32)*** | 2.71 (1.67 to 4.38)*** | 1.52 (0.93 to 2.50) | 1.52 (0.93 to 2.50) |
| Urbanicity (ref: urban) | ||||
| Rural | 0.86 (0.58 to 1.28) | 0.87 (0.58 to 1.30) | 0.97 (0.65 to 1.45) | 0.96 (0.64 to 1.44) |
| Monthly household income (US$) (ref: <422) | ||||
| 422–704 | 1.36 (0.79 to 2.34) | 1.52 (0.88 to 2.63) | 1.11 (0.64 to 1.95) | 1.18 (0.67 to 2.07) |
| 705–1407 | 0.82 (0.44 to 1.52) | 0.95 (0.51 to 1.77) | 1.01 (0.56 to 1.83) | 1.11 (0.61 to 2.03) |
| 1408–2815 | 0.92 (0.45 to 1.88) | 1.08 (0.53 to 2.21) | 1.02 (0.51 to 2.06) | 1.14 (0.56 to 2.31) |
| >2815 | 1.23 (0.55 to 2.76) | 1.55 (0.68 to 3.50) | 1.00 (0.41 to 2.41) | 1.15 (0.48 to 2.80) |
| Province by confirmed patients (ref: low case area) | ||||
| Low-medium case area | 1.77 (1.04 to 3.00)* | 1.74 (1.02 to 2.96)* | 1.44 (0.88 to 2.34) | 1.40 (0.86 to 2.29) |
| Medium case area | 1.64 (0.96 to 2.79) | 1.61 (0.94 to 2.74) | 1.10 (0.67 to 1.81) | 1.09 (0.66 to 1.80) |
| High case area | 2.15 (1.12 to 4.13)* | 2.03 (1.05 to 3.92)* | 0.78 (0.26 to 2.29) | 0.78 (0.26 to 2.29) |
| It is difficult for me to find correct and comprehensive information about COVID-19 (ref: disagree) | ||||
| Neutral | 1.49 (0.85 to 2.62) | 1.20 (0.70 to 2.06) | ||
| Agree | 1.91 (1.08 to 3.37)* | 1.12 (0.64 to 1.98) | ||
| It is difficult for me to understand information I got about COVID-19 (ref: disagree) | ||||
| Neutral | 1.62 (1.01 to 2.61)* | 1.40 (0.86 to 2.29) | ||
| Agree | 1.88 (1.08 to 3.29)* | 2.08 (1.17 to 3.69)* | ||
*p<0.05, **p<0.01, ***p<0.001.
†Participants who lived in Wuhan were automatically exempted from stigma questions related to residents of Wuhan.
‡Model 1 was a logistic regression analysis without considering the health literacy.
§Model 2 included the health literacy to see the possible impact of health literacy on stigmatising attitudes.
aOR, adjusted OR.