Table 3.

Epistemological assumptions of positivism, post-positivism, constructivism/interpretivism, and critical theory [27, 34]

Paradigm	Positivist	Post-positivist	Constructivist/interpretivist	Critical theory
Epistemological assumptions	Neutral knowledge can be obtained through the use of reliable and valid measurement tools.	Obtaining knowledge is subject to human error. Therefore, human knowledge is imperfect and only “probable” truths can be established.	Knowledge is subjective and formed at an individual level.	Knowledge is also subjective, but created and negotiated between individuals and within groups.