Electrical impedance measurement of mineralized GelMA constructs. (A) Schematic and picture of the impedance testing setup showing the test circuit, custom-made green chip, and LabView DAQ interface. (B) Changes in sample impedance as a function of total osteogenic stimulation time (n = 6, **p < 0.01, ***p < 0.001). (C) Changes in sample impedance as a function of total SBF incubation time (n = 10, ***p < 0.001). (D) Tabulated summary of fully mineralized cell-laden and SBF-incubated samples with comparative impedance and mineral mass. DAQ, data acquisition.