Table 5.
Nanoengineered Electroconductive Scaffolds for Tendon/Skeletal Muscle Tissue Regeneration
| Type of conductive scaffold | Composition | Fabrication technique | Measurement device | Cellular type | Properties | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nanofibrous | Gelatin–PANI doped with CSA | Electrospinning | Four point probe measurements | Mouse C2C12 myoblast | Enhance myotube contractibility, DHPR colocalization, RyR, expression of genes correlated to the E–C coupling apparatus, calcium transients. The maximum conductivity was 4.2 × 10−3 S/cm. |
145 |
| Nanofibrous | PANI/PAN | Electrospinning | — | Mouse fibroblast cells and mesenchymal stem cells | Support cell growth and proliferation, promote hMSCs differentiation into muscle-like cells (gene expression and immunocytochemistry). | 146 |
| Nanofibrous | PANI/PAN | Electrospinning | — | Mouse satellite cells | Lower cell proliferation and highest value of differentiation. The maximum conductivity was 38.58 ± 0.09 μs/cm. |
147 |
| Nanofibrous | PANI/Chitosan grafted aniline tetramer | Electrospinning | Cyclic voltammetry | C2C12 myoblasts and dog chondrocyte cells | Noncytotoxicity of products and improve the cell adhesion and proliferation of C2C12 myoblasts. | 148 |
| Nanofibrous | PANI and PCL | Electrospinning | Four-point probe measurements | C2C12 myoblasts | Guide myoblast orientation and promote myotube formation. Enhance myotube maturation. The maximum conductivity was 63.6 ± 6.6 mS/cm. |
149 |
| Nanofibrous | PANI and PCL | Electrospinning | Cyclic voltammetry | C2C12 myoblasts | MHC expression, formation of multinucleate myotube, the expression of differentiation-specific genes (myogenin, troponin-T, MHC). | 150 |
| Nanofibrous | PANI/Tetraaniline-polylactide | Thermally-induced phase separation | Cyclic voltammetry | C2C12 myoblasts | Nontoxicity, enhance the adhesion and proliferation of the C2C12 myoblast cells, significantly improve the cell proliferation of C2C12 myoblasts. | 151 |
| Nanofibrous | PAN/PANI-CSA/GO | Electrospinning | Four-point probe measurements | Mouse satellite cells | Enhanced conductivity, relative higher stiffness of the PAN/PANI-CSA/G nanofibers. The maximum conductivity was 159.69 ± 0.06 μs/cm. | 152 |
| Nanofibrous | SF/PASA | Electrospinning | Four-point probe measurements | L929 and C2C12 cells | Enhanced the myogenic differentiation of C2C12 cells. The maximum conductivity was 10−2 S/m. | 153 |
| Nanofibrous | PCL/PPy | Electrospinning | DC voltage | C2C12 myoblasts | Promoted myoblast differentiation to a greater extent than scaffolds made of PCL. The maximum conductivity was 1.1 mS/cm. | 154 |
| Nanofibrous | Polycaprolactone/polyaniline | Electrospinning | Four-point probe measurements | hADSCs | Increased conductivity with the inclusion of polyaniline. Scaffolds with 0.1% wt. polyaniline showed suitable compressive strength and conductivity for bone tissue engineering applications. The maximum conductivity was 2.46 × 10−4 S/cm. |
155 |
| Nanofibrous | Polyurethane/GO | Electrospinning | — | C2C12 myoblasts | Upregulated the myogenic mRNA levels and myosin heavy chain expression. Expressed significantly higher myogenic cell differentiation markers at both gene and protein levels and more aligned myotubular formation. The maximum conductivity was 1 S/m. |
143 |
| Thin Films | ACAT/PUU | Mixing | Cyclic voltammetry | C2C12 myoblasts | Promote cell proliferation, myotube formation (mRNA and protein level). The maximum conductivity was 10−6 S/cm. |
156 |
| Films | AP/PEGS | Mixing | True RMS OLED Multimeter | C2C12 myoblasts | Promote cell proliferation, myotube formation (mRNA and protein level). The maximum conductivity was 1.84 × 10−4 S/cm. |
142 |
| Films | Polyurethane/(1S)-(+)−10-camphorsulfonic acid | Solvent evaporation | Cyclic voltammetry | Mouse 3T3 fibroblasts | Good elasticity, electrical stability, and biocompatibility. The maximum conductivity was 7.3 × 10−5 S/cm. |
157 |
| Hydrogels | GG/PPy | Chemical oxidative polymerization | Four-point probe measurements | 929 and C2C12 myoblast cells | Noncytotoxic for L929 cells. L929 and C2C12 myoblast cells were able to adhere and spread within hydrogels. The maximum conductivity was 2.05 × 10−4 S/cm. |
158 |
| Hydrogels | Dextran-graft-aniline tetramer-graft-4-formylbenzoic acid and N-carboxyethyl chitosan | Green approach by the Michael addition reaction | Cyclic voltammetry | C2C12 myoblasts, HUVEC | Released the C2C12 myoblast cells with a linear-like profile. Adequate in vivo injectability and in vivo degradability of hydrogels. The maximum conductivity was 3.4 × 10−4 mS/cm. |
159 |
| Hydrogels | MnO2/polyaniline/MWCNTs/r-GOx | Mixing | Cyclic voltammetry | — | Outstanding ion transportation efficiency, mechanical properties, and electrochemical properties. The maximum conductivity was 0.182 mS/cm. | 160 |
| Hydrogels | GelMA-alginate bioinks | Bioprinting | Two-channel stimulator | Mouse-derived C2C12 myoblast cells | Improved metabolic activity of cells in GelMA bioinks by addition of oxygen-generating particles to the bioinks. | 161 |
ACAT, aniline trimer; CSA, camphorsulfonic acid; E–C, excitation–contraction; DHPR, dihydropyridine receptor; GG, gellan gum; hADSCs, human adipose-derived stem cells; HUVEC, human umbilical vein endothelial cells; MHC, myosin heavy chain; MnO2, manganese dioxide; PASA, poly(aniline-co-N-(4-sulfophenyl) aniline); PEGS, poly(ethylene glycol)-co-poly(glycerol sebacate); PUU, polyurethane-urea; rGO, reduced graphene oxide; RyR, ryanodine receptor.