Table 3.
Objectives, intervention programme, main results, conclusions, and limitations of the research included in the systematic review and meta-analysis.
| References | Objectives and hypotheses | Intervention programme | Main Results | Conclusions | Limitations | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Control Group | Experimental Group | |||||
| Casado-Robles et al. (2020) | To measure the effect of a teaching unit of the Sport Education Model in physical education on sportspersonship and on the levels of regular physical activity Hypothesis: NR* |
The students belonging to the control group played basketball during Physical Education classes following a traditional teaching method. | The students in the experimental group played basketball during Physical Education classes following the SE. | The Sport Education Model programme improved the students' sportspersonship dimension. However, there were no significant differences on the other dimensions of sportspersonship or on the students' regular physical activity levels. | A 12-session SE didactic unit increased students' desire and willingness to participate in sport competitions by applying maximum effort. However, the programme does not have a greater effect compared to the traditional model on the other dimensions of sportsmanship, nor on levels of habitual physical activity and intention to be physically active. For this reason, the effect of the programme should be tested in other contexts (e.g., with longer programme duration and/or different content) | Duration of programme (12 sessions) High number of excluded participants and, consequently, low final sample size (45 participants) Sample from a single school |
| Cecchini et al. (2003) | To assess the impact of Hellison's (1995) Intervention Programme for Developing Personal and Social Responsibility on fair play behaviors and on self-control Hypothesis: In a relatively short time, the implementation of this programme would generate positive changes in the opinions and behaviors related to fair-play in sport, as well as in personal self-control in other domains outside sport |
The boys and girls in the control group played indoor football during physical education classes following a traditional teaching method. | The boys and girls in the experimental group practiced indoor football during Physical Education classes following the Hellison intervention programme, which is structured in five levels of responsibility. (a) respecting the rights and feelings of others; (b) being motivated; (c) autonomy; (d) helping others; (e) applying these responsibilities to other domains outside sport. | Significant improvements were observed in personal feedback, reward delay, criterial self-control, process self-control, fun-related opinions, and sporting behaviors. Decreases were observed in variables related to rough play, contact fouls and unsporting behaviors. Finally, no significant changes were found in the control group. | Physical activities can be, when properly addressed, a vehicle for effecting changes in social and moral development in children and adolescents. In addition, it is possible to successfully implement a programme of 'personal responsibility and social responsibility' in physical education classes, providing a useful tool for moral development and moral development through sport and physical activity | NR* |
| Cecchini et al. (2007) | To assess the impact of Hellison's (1995) Intervention Programme for Developing Personal and Social Responsibility on fair play behaviors and on self-control Hypothesis: Level 5 of Hellison's (1995) programme is essential for the transfer to take place |
The control group students played five-a-side football during Physical Education following a Traditional teaching method | The students of the experimental groups A and B practiced indoor football following the Hellison intervention programme, which is structured in five levels of responsibility, which were worked on by group A, while group B only worked on the first four. (a) respecting the rights and feelings of others; (b) being motivated; (c) autonomy; (d) helping others; (e) applying these responsibilities to other domains. | In the experimental groups A and B, significant improvements were observed in personal feedback, reward delay, criterial self-control, process self-control, fun-related opinions, and sporting behaviors. Decreases were observed in variables related to rough play, contact fouls and unsporting behaviors. Finally, no significant changes were found in the control group. | It is possible to successfully implement a programme of “personal responsibility and social responsibility” in physical education classes, providing a useful tool for moral development through sport and physical activity | Sample. Given that there are many factors that influence transfer, such as age, mental ability personality and motivation |
| Coppola et al. (2020) | To analyse the effects of two different teaching approaches on students' levels of enjoyment Hypothesis: NR* |
The boys and girls in the control group played different sports (basketball, handball, football, and volleyball) in Physical Education classes following a Traditional teaching method. | The boys and girls in the experimental group played basketball, handball, football and volleyball during physical education classes following this approach: a tactical problem, a lesson approach and an objective. | The results obtained revealed that male participants in the experimental group did not show variations in the levels of the enjoyment scale, while female participants, although starting from a lower level, had increases in the scale scores in the post-intervention, although not statistically significant. | Recent work has shown how the TGM approach is functional both for the personal development of students and for the learning of skills that can go beyond motor-sport practice (curricular and extracurricular), also affecting enjoyment | The duration and frequency of the interventions, as it was only 1 h per week |
| Cuevas et al. (2016) | To analyse the impact of the Sport Education Model on self-determination, motivation, frustration of basic psychological needs, enjoyment-satisfaction, boredom in Physical Education of secondary school students Hypothesis: NR* |
The students in the experimental group, during the Physical Education sessions, played volleyball following a Traditional teaching method. | Students in the experimental group played volleyball in physical education classes, following the SE. | The results showed significant improvements in different items such as enjoyment and intrinsic motivation in favor of the Experimental Group. | Through the implementation of group work, opportunities for social interaction between team members are provided; however, these opportunities may be significantly reduced by other classmates who are members of opposing teams | Sample size, sample selection method and duration of the intervention |
| Gil-Arias et al. (2020) | To investigate the motivational outcomes of primary school children participating in an invasion game unit through two pedagogical models: a hybrid TGfU/Sport Education unit or a Direct instructions unit Hypothesis: Boys and girls participating in the hybrid TGfU/SE unit will report higher levels of autonomy support compared to boys and girls participating in the direct instruction unit Children taught through the hybrid TGfU/SE model will report higher scores on all post-intervention variables compared to pre-intervention children participating in the direct instruction model |
The boys and girls belonging to the control group practiced different invasion sports in Physical Education following a traditional teaching method. | The boys and girls in the experimental group played different invasion sports through hybrid TGfU/ SE sessions during Physical Education lessons. | Significant differences in student motivation were observed for both boys and girls who participated in the TGfU/SE hybrid unit. | A hybrid TGfU/SE unit can be implemented in a physical education context as it can lead to significant improvements in students' self-determined motivation when compared to a direct instruction unit | Only the effects of a hybrid TGfU/SE season were examined |
| Lis-Velado and Carriedo (2019) | To analyse the impact of the innovative Brave League on goal orientations, fair play, effort, and pressure-stress. Hypothesis: NR* |
The students belonging to the control group played indoor football during the physical education sessions following a traditional competitive system (points, ranking, etc.). | The students in the experimental group practiced indoor football during Physical Education following a competitive system based on the innovative format of the Brave League, where fair play behaviors determine the order in the ranking. | The results attained suggest that competitive formats could have a positive impact on task orientation, enjoyment, and effort during sport competitions. | The proximity in time between the pre and post measurement The Brave League format can produce changes in a relatively short period of time in the task orientation and effort of the participants without altering the perceived enjoyment during the competition | The number of participants The short time spent on the intervention in each of the groups |
| Spittle and Byrne (2009) | To investigate the influence of the SE on student motivation (intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, goal orientations and perceived motivational climate) in secondary school Physical Education Hypothesis: Enjoyment, perceived competence, effort, task orientation and mastery-oriented motivational climate would increase significantly. In addition, pressure/strain, ego-orientation, and performance-oriented climate would decrease due to SE. A task climate would be related to increased intrinsic motivation, and a performance climate would be related to ego-goal orientation and decreased intrinsic motivation | The students in the control group played soccer and field hockey during the physical education sessions, following a traditional teaching method | Students in the experimental group, in physical education classes, played soccer, hockey and “code football” a combination of Australian Rules Football, Gaelic football and played soccer, field hockey and “code soccer” (combination of Australian Rules Football, Gaelic soccer and touch soccer) following the Sports Education model | There was a significant difference between conditions on changes in perceived competence, task orientation and mastery climate. There were no significant differences in enjoyment/fun, effort, and pressure. | SE was more successful in maintaining high levels of intrinsic motivation, task orientation and climate of mastery than the traditional condition | Existence of several confounding variables that were not controlled for or measured; consequently, it is difficult to conclude a causal relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variables |
| Viciana et al. (2020) | To analyse the effect of a physical education-based and Sport education programme on personal and interpersonal variables, on the social environment and on the predisposition to acquire positive habits and autonomy Hypothesis: NR* |
The boys and girls belonging to the control group practiced volleyball following a Traditional teaching method during Physical Education classes, combining tasks with reduced game situations and Direct instructions methodologies. | The boys and girls in the experimental group played volleyball during the P.E. sessions following the SE based on games and competitions of volleyball game situations. | Participants in the Experimental Group had a statistically significant increase in scores on the following dimensions: personal (self-determined motivation toward physical education, satisfaction/enjoyment toward sport and physical self-concept); interpersonal (relationship with others, cooperative learning, and important role within the group); social (Physical Education classroom environment and sportspersonship); and autonomy and habit acquisition (support for autonomy and intention to be physically active) when compared to the Control Group. | It is very useful to design effective programmes that allow for positive results in terms of interpersonal, social and habit acquisition, fun, motivation, and autonomy to improve pupils' citizenship education | Issues beyond the control of the researchers Lack of personal resources |
| Wallhead and Ntoumanis (2004) | To analyze the influence of a SE intervention program on students' motivational responses in a high school physical education setting Hypothesis: Students in the SE group would report a greater increase in enjoyment, perceived effort, and perceived competence than those in the traditional curriculum group. Changes in SE students' perceptions would significantly predict the intervention dependent variables of students' enjoyment, effort and competence |
The boys and girls in the control group, during the Physical Education sessions, played basketball following traditional teaching | The boys and girls in the experimental group, in physical education classes, played basketball following the SE | The SE increases the perception of a climate of task involvement and perceived autonomy and in doing so, increase motivation and enjoyment of high school students toward physical education | The SE has many structural features that have the potential to foster more adaptive motivational responses from students by creating an environment that allows for self-improvement, choice, and equity for students | One was the size and composition of the intervention sample. With only two groups of boys in its design, this study cannot be easily generalized to girls participating in the SE There is also the possibility of bias, as the researcher acted as a teacher and was aware of the aims of the study |
| Wallhead et al. (2014) | To examine the effect of the SE in high school on student motivation in Physical Education Hypothesis: Participants completed pre-test measures and then participated in their classes (SE and multi-activity programme). Post-test measures were completed in the last class of each methodology |
The students in the control group played, during physical education sessions, volleyball, badminton, soccer, ultimate, cooperative games, handball, and basketball following a multi-activity model | Students in the experimental group, field hockey, volleyball, handball, basketball, during the physical education sessions, following SE | The results showed that the SE generates a greater enjoyment of the program in students compared to the students of the multi-activity model | SE facilitates more internalized forms of student motivation, but without the provision of an appropriately designed extra-curricular outlet, the potential may drop considerably | SE may not have used pedagogies that maximize support for full autonomy |
NR*
, not reported.