Table 1.
Studies included in the meta-analysis.
| References | Country | r | N | Male ratio% | average age | Empathy type | Developmental stage | Defending behavior evaluators |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Barchia and Bussey (2011) | Australia | 0.24 | 1167 | 47.47 | 12 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| Barhight et al. (2013) | United States | −0.17 | 771 | 46.17 | 10.6 | Affective | Early | Peer |
| Caravita et al. (2009) | Italy | 0.16 | 130 | 100 | 9.3 | Affective | Early | Peer |
| Italy | 0.06 | 130 | 100 | 9.3 | Cognitive | Early | Peer | |
| Italy | 0.23 | 136 | 0 | 9.3 | Affective | Early | Peer | |
| Italy | 0.00 | 136 | 0 | 9.3 | Cognitive | Early | Peer | |
| Italy | 0.37 | 104 | 100 | 12.4 | Affective | Middle | Peer | |
| Italy | 0.14 | 104 | 100 | 12.4 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer | |
| Italy | 0.05 | 91 | 0 | 12.4 | Affective | Middle | Peer | |
| Italy | 0.14 | 91 | 0 | 12.4 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer | |
| Caravita et al. (2010) | Italy | 0.19 | 98 | 100 | 10.2 | Affective | Early | Peer |
| Italy | 0.25 | 113 | 0 | 10.2 | Affective | Early | Peer | |
| Carroll (2014) | United States | 0.27 | 282 | 30.85 | 12.8 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| Correia and Dalbert (2008) | Portugal | 0.50 | 187 | 51.87 | 14.5 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| Cuervo et al. (2018) | Mexico | 0.36 | 1224 | 45.9 | 13.5 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| Dollar (2016) | United States | 0.20 | 207 | 43 | 12.7 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| United States | 0.23 | 207 | 43 | 12.7 | Cognitive | Middle | Self | |
| Espelage et al. (2012) | United States | 0.41 | 168 | 100 | NA | Affective | Middle | Self |
| United States | 0.52 | 168 | 100 | NA | Cognitive | Middle | Self | |
| United States | 0.40 | 179 | 0 | NA | Affective | Middle | Self | |
| United States | 0.33 | 179 | 0 | NA | Cognitive | Middle | Self | |
| Fredrick et al. (2020) | United States | 0.28 | 336 | 58.93 | NA | Affective | Early | Self |
| United States | 0.32 | 336 | 58.93 | NA | Cognitive | Early | Self | |
| Gini et al. (2007) | Italy | 0.22 | 176 | 100 | 13.2 | Affective | Middle | Peer |
| Italy | 0.10 | 176 | 100 | 13.2 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer | |
| Italy | 0.17 | 142 | 0 | 13.2 | Affective | Middle | Peer | |
| Italy | 0.16 | 142 | 0 | 13.2 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer | |
| Gini et al. (2008) | Italy | 0.14 | 294 | 52.8 | 13.3 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer |
| Italy | 0.17 | 294 | 52.8 | 13.3 | Affective | Middle | Peer | |
| Lucas-Molina et al. (2018) | Spain | 0.10 | 2050 | 49.2 | 9.8 | Affective | Early | Peer |
| Ma (2020) | Taiwan, China | 0.21 | 730 | 51 | 12.8 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| Menolascino and Jenkins (2018) | United States | 0.12 | 179 | 0 | NA | Affective | Middle | Self |
| United States | 0.16 | 179 | 0 | NA | Cognitive | Middle | Self | |
| United States | 0.36 | 167 | 100 | NA | Affective | Middle | Self | |
| United States | 0.17 | 167 | 100 | NA | Cognitive | Middle | Self | |
| Nickerson and Mele-Taylor (2014) | United States | 0.37 | 262 | 46.18 | 12.2 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| Oh and Park (2019) | Korea | 0.07 | 163 | 47.23 | NA | Affective | Middle | Self |
| Peets et al. (2015) | Finland | 0.30 | 6708 | 49.00 | NA | Affective | Early | Peer |
| Finland | 0.17 | 6708 | 49.00 | NA | Cognitive | Early | Peer | |
| Pöyhönen et al. (2010) | Finland | 0.12 | 489 | 47.44 | 12.3 | Affective | Early | Peer |
| Finland | 0.10 | 489 | 47.44 | 12.3 | Cognitive | Early | Peer | |
| Pozzoli et al. (2017) | Italy | 0.54 | 398 | 52.76 | 12.3 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| Italy | 0.49 | 398 | 52.76 | 12.3 | Cognitive | Middle | Self | |
| Rieffe and Camodeca (2016) | Italy | 0.26 | 182 | 46.7 | 13.4 | Affective | Middle | Peer |
| Italy | 0.22 | 182 | 46.7 | 13.4 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer | |
| van Beurden et al. (2012) | Netherlands | 0.39 | 92 | 30.43 | 15.8 | Affective | Middle | Self |
| van der Ploeg et al. (2017) | Finland | 0.31 | 4209 | 50 | 11.3 | Affective | Early | Peer |
| Finland | 0.18 | 4209 | 50 | 11.3 | Cognitive | Early | Peer | |
| Wolfgang (2017) | United States | 0.17 | 322 | 34.78 | 13.4 | Affective | Middle | Peer |
| United States | 0.05 | 322 | 34.78 | 13.4 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer | |
| Yun and Graham (2018) | Korea | 0.24 | 828 | 100 | 14.0 | Affective | Middle | Peer |
| Korea | 0.24 | 828 | 100 | 14.0 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer | |
| Korea | 0.24 | 545 | 0 | 14.0 | Affective | Middle | Peer | |
| Korea | 0.16 | 545 | 0 | 14.0 | Cognitive | Middle | Peer | |
| Li et al. (2020) | China | 0.15 | 912 | 56.58 | NA | Affective | Middle | Self |
| China | 0.22 | 912 | 56.58 | NA | Cognitive | Middle | Self | |
| Ma (2018) | China | 0.59 | 971 | NA | NA | Affective | Early | Self |
| China | 0.54 | 971 | NA | NA | Cognitive | Early | Self |
N, number of participants; NA, the unreported average age.