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. 2021 Aug 19;11:16858. doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-96503-4

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© The Author(s) 2021

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Schematic image of mechanism of ferrous ions delivery to microbial cells by the carbon dioxide nanobubbles. Because the carbon dioxide nanobubbles (red spheres) are negatively charged, cations including ferrous ions (green spheres) are adsorbed on to the surface of the carbon dioxide nanobubbles and change to positive charges. Because bacterial cells (purple rod) are also negatively charged, the carbon dioxide nanobubbles on which ferrous ions are adsorbed are accessible to the bacterial cells and ferrous ions are delivered to the bacteria. Ferrous ions are also delivered to bacterial cells due to natural diffusion, however, the number of ferrous ions delivered to bacterial cells by the carbon dioxide nanobubbles is larger than that delivered due to natural diffusion.