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. 2021 Aug 9;12:719589. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2021.719589

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Copyright © 2021 Li, Li, Pang, Zhang, Yu, Yeo, Lavin, Shao, Jia and Peng.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Metformin activates autophagy via the AMPK-mTOR signaling pathway. (A) The protein levels of AMPK, p-AMPK, mTOR and p-mTOR, p62, Beclin1 and LC3 in HBEC were detected by western blot. (B) Fluorescence images of Ad-GFP-LC3 in HBEC cells after co-culture 72 h. GFP fluorescence indicated by green puncta. a Control group; b Met treatment group; c Silica group; d Silica+0.5 mM Met group; e Silica+0.1 μM CC group; f Silica+0.5 mM Met +0.1 μM CC group. Scale bars, 30 μm. All the data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 3 for each experimental group). *p < 0.05, compared to the negative control group; ^# p < 0.05, compared to silica group; ^& p < 0.05, compared to Silica + Met group; ^$ p < 0.05, compared to Silica + CC group. AMPK, adenosine5′-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase; mTOR, mammalian Target of Rapamyc; LC3, microtubules associated protein 1 light chain 3; Met, metformin; CC, Compound C.