Table 5.

Summary of inputs and outputs from pandemic preparedness metrics

	Input			Output
	Funding	Data	Validation	Form	Audience	Potential bias
e-SPAR	n/a	Self-reporting	None (no WHO mandate)	Coloured spreadsheet	WHO officials, global health policymakers	Inaccuracies
JEE	Gates Foundation for start-up costs, then countries sending experts, and WHO	Country self-assessment, and external expert assessment during visit	Experts in the mission team then reporting to the WHO on basis of a template	Lengthy policy reports, including scores (not available in a dataset format)	Donors, domestic health policymakers	Cognitive closure and groupthink
GHSI	Gates Foundation, Open Philanthropy Project, Robertson Foundation	Publicly available information collected by the Economist Intelligence Unit	Coders at Johns Hopkins and Nuclear Threat Initiative, following deliberations and on the basis of scoresheet	Coloured rankings and table	Domestic politicians, donors, media	Blind spots

e-SPAR, Electronic State Parties Self-Assessment Annual Reporting Tool; GHSI, Global Health Security Index; JEE, Joint External Evaluation.