Fig. 1. Reciprocal Effects Between Paternal Spanking and Child Aggression.

Fig. 1 Note. All variables were regressed on a full set of controls: fathers’ parenting stress, fathers’ involvement with child at age 1, age 3, and age 5, fathers’ major depression symptoms, fathers’ heavy drinking day, fathers’ psychological aggression from child’s mother at age 1, child gender, child temperament, fathers’ race, fathers’ age, fathers’ education level, and family income. Dotted lines indicate non-significant relationships. *** p ≤ .001, ** p ≤ .01, * p ≤ .05.