Table 1.

A summary of alterations to the skeletal muscle during pre- and cachectic states.

Marker	Pre-cachexia	Cachexia	Reference
Protein synthesis	↔	↓	52, 53, 54, 65, 110
Protein degradation	↔	↑	52, 53, 54
Atrogenes (Atrogin-1 & MuRF-1)	↔	↑	52, 53, 93, 110
Deptor	?	↑	53,
Regeneration	?	↓	74
Cell cycling & Myogensis	↓	↔	53
Autophagy	↔	↑	40, 52, 53, 82
ATP production	?	↓	40, 78
MAPK	↔	↑	53, 86, 93, 100
Muscle contractility	↓	↓	84, 86, 87
Calcium homeostasis	?	↓	76, 89
Mitochondrial content	↔	↓	75, 79
ROS emission	↑	↑	40, 75, 83
Oxidative stress	↑	↑	40, 75
Mitochondrial fusion	↓	↓	40, 36, 75
Mitochondrial fission	↔	↑	40, 36, 75
Mitophagy	↔	↑	75
Mitochondrial respiration	↔	↓	40, 54, 75
Antioxidant activity	↔	↔	75
Apoptosis	?	↑	36, 65, 82
Inflammation	↑	↑	32, 36, 86, 93, 100