Table 1.
Reference | Cohort (Male/Female) | Study design TRE Regimen(Fasting: Feeding) | Study duration | Calorie intake/weight change | Glucose metabolism | Lipid metabolism | Other effects |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Antoni et al. 2018 (62) | n = 13 (1/12) healthy adults age: 29-57 years | non-randomized controlled trial parallel armTRE: daily feeding duration shortened by 3 h | 12 weeks: 2 weeks baseline10 weeks intervention | − Ad libitum food access↓ daily energy intake ↔ distribution of macronutrients− ns body weight loss |
↓ fasting glucose (primarily driven by an increase among controls) | − ns reduction in LDL and increase in HDL | ↓ body fat mass |
Cai et al., 2019 (63) | n = 174 (52/122) NAFLD patients age: 34,1 ± 6,6 years | RCT parallel arm TRE (16: 8) self-selected feeding window | 12 weeks intervention | − Ad libitum food access− provided with a meal per day↔ energy intake↓ body weight | ↔ fasting glucose and insulin | ↓ serum TG↔LDL, HDL, and total cholesterol | ↓ fat mass |
Chow et al. 2020 (64) | n = 20 (3/17) overweight adults with a prolonged eating window >15 h/day age: 45,5 ± 12,1 years | RCT parallel arm TRE (13-16: 8-11) self-selected hour window | ~16 weeks: ~ 4 weeks preintervention12 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake− no measure of caloric intake (or not published) ↓ body weight | vs. preintervention↓ fasting glucose↑ time blood glucose levels within target (70-180 mg/dL) (CGM measure) | vs. preintervention↓ TG↔ LDL, HDL | ↔ physical activity↓ number of eating occasions(a) vs. non-TRE group↓ visceral fat↓ lean mass(b) vs. preintervention↓ fat mass ↓ lean mass↓ visceral fat |
Cienfuegos et al., 2020 (65) | n = 49 (5/44) obese adults age: 47 ± 2 years | RCT parallel arm (a) lTRE (18: 6) 1 pm–7 pm.(b) lTRE (20: 4) 3 pm to 7 pm | 10 weeks: 2 weeks baseline8 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake↓ energy intake ~550 kcal/day↓ body weight | ↔ fasting glucose↓ fasting insulin↓ insulin resistance(partly driven by a worsening in control group) | ↔ TG, HDL, and LDL | ↓ fat mass↓ lean mass with (18: 6) vs. control and vs. (20: 4) ↓ 8-isoprostane |
Gabel et al., 2018 (66) Gabel et al., 2020 (67) | n = 23 (3/20) obese adults age: 50 ± 2 years | historically controlled study TRE (16: 8) 10 am–6 pm | 14 weeks: 2 weeks baseline12 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake↓ caloric intake~ 350 kcal/day↔ macronutrients↓ body weight | ↔ glucose, insulin, HOMAR-IR | ↔ TG, HDL, and LDL | ↓ systolic blood pressure ↔ physical activity↔ gut microbiome |
Hutchison et al., 2019 (68) | n = 15 (15/0) prediabetic men age: 55 ± 3 years | RCT crossover design (a) eTRE (15: 9) 8 am to 5 pm (b) lTRE (15: 9) 12 pm–9 pm | 5 weeks: 1 week baseline 1 week each intervention 2 weeks washout | − ad libitum food intake− no measure of caloric intake (or not published) ↓ body weight | ↓ glucose iAUC↔ fasting glucose and insulin↓ mean fasting glucose in eTRE (CGM data) | ↓ fasting TG↔ NEFA | ↔ physical activity ↔ gastrointestinal hormones ↔ perceived hunger, fullness, desire to eat |
Jamshed et al., 2019 (69) Ravussin et al., 2019 (70) | n = 11 (7/4) overweight adults age: 32 ± 7 years | RCT crossover design eTRE (18: 6) 8 am–2 pm | ~5-6 weeks: 4 days each intervention 3,5-5 weeks washout | − isocaloric controlled feeding approach− days 1-2: participants followed eating schedule on their own− days 3-4: standardized meals eaten under supervision↔ weight between arms before respiratory chamber↓ body weight while respiratory chamber day in eTRE vs. controls | ↓ mean 24-h glucose ↓ glycemic excursions (M age) ↓ morning fasting glucose, insulin, and HOMA-IR ↑ evening insulin and HOMA-IR↔ evening glucose |
↑ morning total cholesterol, HDL, LDL↔ morning TG, free fatty acids↔ evening lipid levels | ↔ 24 h energy expenditure ↓ mean ghrelin↓ morning levels of ghrelin, leptin, GLP-1↑ PYY in evening↑ metabolic flexibility ↑ ketones in morning↓ evening cortisol |
Jones et al. 2020 (71) | n = 16 (16/0) healthy men age: 23 ± years | Non-randomized trial Two groups recruited & tested temporally apart(a) eTRE (16: 8) 8 am–4 pm(b) energy-matched control/caloric restriction intervention (CON : CR) | 3 weeks: 1 week baseline 2 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake in eTRE group− prescribed dietary plans and all dietary intakes provided in CON : CR group to match eTRE↓ caloric intake~ 400 kcal/day↓ body weight (matched in Con : CR) | ↑ whole-body insulin sensitivity↑ glucose uptake of skeletal muscle↔ mean 24-h glucose↔ fasting insulin | ↔ serum TG | ↔ physical activity↑ fasting ghrelin |
Karras et al., 2020 (72) | ntotal = 60 (17/43) orthodox fasting n=37 (11/26) TRE n=23 (6/17) overweight, metabolically healthy adults age: 48.3 ± 8.9 years | non-randomized, parallel arm trial(a) orthodox fasting (b) eTRE (16: 8) 8 am–4 pm | 12 weeks: 7 weeks intervention follow up 5 weeks after intervention | (a) hypocaloric dietary plans based on orthodox fasting: no animal products, except for 2 days fish (b) hypocaloric dietary plans with two meals (8 am and 1 pm) and two snacks (11 am and 3: 30 pm) ↔ caloric intake↓ body weight (both groups vs. pre-intervention) |
↔ fasting glucose, fasting insulin↔ insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and ß-cell function | ↔ total cholesterol, LDL↑ TG↓ HDL | vs. orthodox fasting: ↓ waist circumferencevs. pre-intervention: ↓ waist circumference↓ body fat↔ C-reactive protein |
Kesztyüs et al., 2019 (73) | n = 40 (9/31) abdominally obese adults age: 49,1 ± 12,4 years | single arm trial TRE (15-16: 8-9) self-selected hour window | 12 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake− no measure of caloric intake↓ body weight | ↓ HbA1c | ↔ total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, TG | ↓ waist circumference |
Li et al., 2021 (74) | n = 15 (0/15) women with anovulation and PCOS age: between 18 and 31 years | single arm triale TRE (16: 8) 8 am–4 pm | 6 weeks: 1 week baseline 5 weeks intervention | − isocaloric approach (fluctuations for no more than 10% from baseline caloric intake) ↓ body weight | ↔ fasting glucose, glucose AUC↓ fasting insulin, insulin AUC↓HOMA-IR, AUCInsulin/AUCGlucose | ↔ total cholesterol, LDL, TG | ↓ body fat↓ visceral fat↓ C-reactive protein and alanine aminotransferase↑ IGF-1 |
Lowe et al. 2020 (75) | ntotal = 116 (70/46) in-person tested: n = 50 (28/22) overweight, obese adults age: 46,5 ± 10,5 years | RCT parallel arml TRE (16: 8) 12 pm–8 pm | 12 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake− no measure of caloric intake↓ body weight (vs. baseline ns from control group) | ↔ fasting glucose, fasting insulin, HOMA-IR, HbA1c | ↔ total cholesterol, HLD, LDL, TG | ↓ appendicular lean mass |
Martens et al., 2020 (76) | n = 22 (10/12) healthy, non-obese adults age: 67 ± 1 years | RCT crossover design lTRE (16: 8) consistent self-selected hour window starting between 10 and 11 am | 7 weeks: 1 week baseline 6 weeks each intervention | − ad libitum food intake↔ total energy intake↔ diet composition (healthy eating index) ↔ body weight | ↔ fasting glucose↓ glucose AUC (during OGTT) ↔ plasma insulin |
↑ total cholesterol and LDL | ↔ total body composition ↔ bone density↓ sensation of hunger |
McAllister et al., 2019 (77) | n = 22 (22/0) physically active men age: 22 ± 2,5 years | randomized two parallel arm trial (a) ad libitum TRE (16: 8) (b) isocaloric TRE (16: 8) self-selected hour window | 4 weeks intervention | (a) ad libitum food intake (b) isocaloric food intake = advised to eat <± 300 kcal from baseline measured caloric intakein both groups: − ns lower caloric intake↓ body weight | ↔ blood glucose↔ plasma insulin | ↑ HDL↔ mean TG | ↓ body fat↓ blood pressure ↑ adiponectin |
Moro et al., 2016 (78) | n = 34 (34/0) healthy resistance trained men age: 29,21 ± 3,8 years | RCT parallel arm (a) lTRE (16: 8) 1 pm–9 pm+ RT (b) control eating window: 8 am–9 pm + RT | 8 weeks intervention | − caloric intake consumed in 3 meals per day at standardized times within 1 h↔ caloric intake and macronutrient distribution↓ body weight |
TRE pre vs. post (not control) : ↓ blood glucose ↓ insulin andHOMA-IR |
↓ TG↔ total cholesterol, LDL, HDL | ↓ fat mass↔ lean mass ↓ testosterone↓ IGF-1 ↑ adiponectin↓TNF-α, IL-1β ↓ respiratory ratio |
Parr et al. 2020 (79) | n = 19 (9/10) adults with T2D and eating window >12 h/day age: 50 ± 9 years | single arm trial TRE (15: 9) 10 am–7 pm | 6 weeks: 2 weeks baseline4 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake↔ caloric intake and macronutrient distribution↔ body weight | ↔ fasting glucose, insulin ↔ glucose and insulin AUC ↔ HbA1c |
↔ total cholesterol, HDL, LDL, TG | ↑ adherence to TRE reduced energy intake ↔ psychological well-being |
Parr et al., 2020 (80) Lundell et al. 2020 (81) | n = 11 (11/0) sedentary men with overweight/obesity age: 38 ± 5 years | RCT crossover design (a) TRE (16: 8) 10 am–6 pm (b) extended feeding of 15 h/day7 am–10 pm | 3 weeks: 5 days each intervention 10 days washout | − isocaloric feeding, meals provided and consumed at standardized times within ± 30 min− no measure of weight loss | ↓ nocturnal glucose AUC ↔ waking glucose AUC ↔ peak glucose↔ 24-h and peak glucose (CGM) ↔ peak insulin− ns tendency to ↓ AUC total insulin |
↔ TG AUC total↑ peak TG↑ AUC total and peak NEFA | ↓ C-Peptide AUC total↔ physical activity↓ evening hunger ↔ muscle core clock gene expression− alters rhythmicity of serum and muscle metabolites and amino acid transport |
Peeke et al., 2021 (82) | n = 60 (7/53) obese adults age: 44 ± 11 years | RCT parallel arm, virtual trial (a) control: (12: 12) (b) TRE: (14: 10) with fasting snack after 12 h on 5 days/weekin both groups fasting period began after dinner between 5 pm and 8 pm | 8 weeks intervention | − Hypocaloric dietary regimes based on Jenny Craig® Rapid Results program− 3 meals and 1 snack provided per day↓ body weight | ↓ fasting plasma glucose | n/a | Fasting snack decreased hunger |
Phillips et al., 2021 (83) | n = 45control n=20adults with eating windows ≥14 h/day and at least one metabolic syndrome component age: 43.4 ± 13.3 years | RCT parallel arm TRE (12: 12) self-selected hour window | 7 months: 4 weeks baseline6 months intervention | − ad libitum food intake− no quantitative measure of caloric intake↓ body weight | ↔ fasting glucose, HbA1c | ↔ HDL cholesterol, TG | ↓ waist circumference |
Sutton et al. 2018 (84) | n = 8 (8/0) overweight men with prediabetes age: 56 ± 9 years | RCT crossover design eTRE (18: 6) dinner before 3 pm | 17 weeks: 5 weeks each intervention7 weeks washout | − isocaloric controlled feeding approach with standardized meals eaten under supervision− ns weight loss | ↓ insulin (fasting, mean and peak) ↑ insulin sensitivity↑ß-cell responsiveness↓ insulin resistance | ↑ fasting TG↔ HDL and LDL cholesterol | ↓blood pressure↓desire to eat in the evening↓8-isoprostane↓fasting PYY |
Tinsley et al. 2019 (85) | ITT: n = 40 (0/40) PP: n = 24 (0/24) healthy resistance trained females age: 22,1 ± 2,6 years | RCT parallel arm (a) lTRE (16: 8) 12 pm–8 pm + placebo +RT(b) lTRE (16: 8) 12 pm–8 pm + 3 mg/day HMB + RT(c) ND + placebo + RT | 8 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake+ provided supplemental whey protein↔ caloric intake (increase in all groups due to provided protein supplements) ↓ body weight | ↔ fasting glucose, insulin | ↔ total cholesterol, HLD, LDL, TG | ↔ muscular improvements↓ fat mass in PP analysis in lTRE groups |
Wilkinson et al., 2020 (86) | n = 19 (13/6) adults with metabolic syndrome and eating window ≥14 h/day age: 59 ± 11 years | single arm trial TRE (14: 10) consistent self-selected hour window | 14 weeks: 2 weeks baseline12 weeks intervention | − ad libitum food intake↓ caloric intake↓ body weight | ns trend towards↓ fasting glucose, fasting insulin, and HbA1c↓ HbA1c in participants with elevated fasting glucose and HbA1c at baseline | ↓ total cholesterol, LDL, and non-HDL↔ TGns tendency to lower HDL | ↓ body fat↓ visceral fat↓ waist circumference↓ blood pressure ↑ restfulness↔ physical activity |
Zeb et al., 2020 (87) | n = 80 (80/0) control n=24young aged healthy men age: n/a | RCT parallel arml TRE (16: 8) 7: 30 pm–3: 30 am | 25 days intervention | − ad libitum food intake↓ caloric intake↔ body weight | n/a | ↓ total cholesterol and TG↔ LDL ↑ HDL (in both: pre- vs. post-intervention and vs. control) |
↑ liver function↑ gut microbial diversity↑ circadian gene expression (Bmal1, Clock, Sirt1) |
Studies investigated effects of a single meal consumed at different times of the day are not included in the table. ↑, increase; ↓, decrease; ↔, no significant change. AUCtotal, total 24-h area under the curve; CGM, continuous glucose monitoring; CON, CR, control/caloric restriction intervention; eTRE, early time-restricted eating; EXF, extended feeding; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin A1c; HDL, high density lipoprotein; HMB, β-hydroxy β-methylbutyrate; HOMA-IR, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance; iAUC, incremental area under the curve; ITT, intention to treat; LDL, low density lipoprotein; lTRE, late time-restricted eating; MAGE, mean amplitude of glycemic excursions; ND, normal diet; NEFA, nonesterified fatty acids; ns, non-significant modification (p > 0,05); OGTT, oral glucose tolerance test; PCOS, polycystic ovary syndrome; PP, per protocol; PYY, peptide YY; RCT, randomized controlled trial; RT, resistance training; T2D, type 2 diabetes; TG, triglycerides; TRE, time-restricted eating; n/a, not available.