Table 2.

Summary of invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation of gamma oscillations in AD mouse models.

	Induction Method	Stimulation Protocol	Duration	Model	Sex	Age (Months)	Modulated AD Phenotype	Reference
Invasive	Optogenetic	1 ms pulses, 40 Hz, CA1	1 h	5xFAD::PV-Cre, AAV5-EF1α-DIO-ChR2-eYFP	M	3	Reduced Aβ Reduced inflammation	[89]
		12 ms pulses, 40 Hz, Medial Septum	10 min	PVJ20, AAVdj-EF1α-DIO-ChETA-eYFP	M/F	NA	Improved spatial memory	[88]
		40 Hz, Basal Forebrain	1 h/d for 3 days	5xFAD::PV-Cre::Ai32	M/F	4–6	Increased Aβ	[157]
Non-Invasive	Visual	12.5 ms on, 12.5 ms off, 40 Hz flicker	1 h/day for 7 days	5xFAD	M	6	Reduced Aβ	[89]
				APP/PS1	M/F	5	Reduced Aβ
				TauP301S	M	4	Reduced tauopathy
		40 Hz flicker	1 h/day for 30 days	APP/PS1	F	8	Reduced Aβ Reduced tauopathy Increased sleep regulation	[160]
		12.5 ms on, 12.5 ms off, 40 Hz flicker	1 h/day for 22 days	TauP301S	M	7.5–8	Reduced neuronal damage Reduced inflammation Reduced tauopathy Improved spatial memory	[91]
			1 h/day for 6 weeks	CK-p25	M/F	6–9	Reduced neuronal damage Reduced inflammation Improved spatial memory
	Auditory	1 ms 10 kHz tones, 40 Hz, 60 dB	1 h/day for 7 days	5xFAD	NA	6	Reduced Aβ Reduced inflammation Improved memory	[90]
				APP/PS1	NA	6–9	Reduced Aβ Reduced inflammation
				TauP301S	NA	2	Reduced tauopathy
	Combined Auditory and Visual	10 s on, 10 s off	1 h/day for 7 days	5xFAD	NA	6	Reduced Aβ Reduced inflammation
	Visual and Exercise	40 Hz light flicker and 30–50 min exercise	Daily, 6 days a week for 12 weeks	3xTg	M	12–15	Reduced Aβ Reduced tauopathy Reduced neuronal damage Improved spatial memory	[159]
	Transcranial Focused Ultrasound	400 μs pulses, 5 s on 5 s off, 40 Hz, Hippocampus	1 h/day for 5 days	5xFAD	M	6	Increased microglia/Aβ Co-localisation	[158]