Table 3. Impact of Raw and Sous-Vide-Cooked Red Cardoon on the Production of Major SCFAs (Acetic, Propionic, and Butyric Acids) and Lactic Acid at Different Time Points (0, 8, 24, and 48 h) of In Vitro Colonic Fermentation, as Analyzed by GC-FID^a.

SCFA	NFC	FOS	raw cardoon	sous vide-cooked cardoon
Acetate
0 h	0.29 ± 0.29	0.26 ± 0.26	1.24 ± 0.07*	1.59 ± 0.05**
8 h	4.88 ± 1.48	17.68 ± 1.51## **	16.65 ± 1.38## **	19.91 ± 0.64## ***
24 h	6.96 ± 4.49	32.28 ± 3.63# **	25.27 ± 3.89## *	33.41 ± 2.84## **
48 h	8.67 ± 4.68	38.77 ± 2.69## **	34.22 ± 2.92# **	33.76 ± 4.69# **
Propionate
0 h	nd	nd	nd	Nd
8 h	1.02 ± 0.52	5.40 ± 4.06	2.75 ± 0.93	2.64 ± 0.80
24 h	1.61 ± 0.92	14.48 ± 7.13	9.80 ± 3.25	12.92 ± 4.72
48 h	2.14 ± 1.00	26.80 ± 2.39## **	11.65 ± 2.89	12.81 ± 5.28
Butyrate
0 h	nd	nd	nd	Nd
8 h	0.36 ± 0.35	0.87 ± 0.44	0.10 ± 0.10	0.10 ± 0.10
24 h	0.52 ± 0.52	3.94 ± 1.76	1.74 ± 0.46#	1.35 ± 0.15#
48 h	1.05 ± 0.61	6.83 ± 1.81*	2.06 ± 0.36#	1.70 ± 0.36#
Lactate
0 h	nd	nd	nd	Nd
8 h	2.17 ± 2.16	3.01 ± 0.52#	3.42 ± 1.05	4.71 ± 1.92
24 h	0.01 ± 0.00	6.76 ± 5.18	2.10 ± 2.10	2.30 ± 2.30
48 h	nd	nd	1.60 ± 1.60	2.07 ± 2.07
Total
0 h	0.29 ± 0.29	0.26 ± 0.26	1.24 ± 0.07*	1.59 ± 0.05**
8 h	8.43 ± 1.87#	26.96 ± 5.53*	22.92 ± 2.98#	27.36 ± 2.52## *
24 h	9.09 ± 5.88	57.46 ± 14.98# *	38.92 ± 6.82#	49.98 ± 7.61#
48 h	11.86 ± 6.29	72.40 ± 4.30**	49.53 ± 5.19# *	50.33 ± 9.33# *

^aThe effect of NFC and prebiotic FOS is also included. Results are expressed as mean mM of lactic acid or SCFA of three independent fermentations with fecal samples from three different donors ±standard error of the mean (SEM). #p < 0.05 and ##p < 0.01, significantly different from the 0 h value within the same treatment. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001, significantly different from NFC at the same time point. nd, not detected.