Table 1.

Characteristics of studies included in the review with a stress physiology and neuroendocrine focus.

Citation Number	Article	Target Population			Methods			Results
		Age	Sample Size	Sample Characteristics	EA Measure	Additional Variables	Evidence of Reliability
[47]	Kertes et al. (2009)	Child age: M = 3.97 years, SD = 0.48	274 parent-child dyads	Family income: <USD 25,000 to >USD 200,000 (M = in the USD 76–100,000 range) Parent education: range from high school/GED to professional school/doctorate (median education = bachelor’s degree) 83% of children were white, non-Hispanic	Quality of parental interaction: 30-min videotaped parent–child interactions using the emotional availability scales (EAS; Biringen, Robinson, and Emde, 1998). The four parent scales (sensitivity, structuring, nonintrusiveness, and nonhostility) on the EAS were scored; the 4 measures combined into factor score parenting quality	Three salivary cortisol samples; nonsocial and social inhibition	Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) > 0.80	Nonsocial and social inhibition could be distinguished; that associations with cortisol response were stressor specific; parenting quality buffered cortisol elevations for extremely socially inhibited children, but not nonsocially inhibited children
[48]	Rickmeyer, Lebiger, & Leusinger-Bhleber (2017)	Mother age: M = 38.77 years	24 mother-child dyads	Infants with an immigrant background, “hard to reach” mothers who had not been integrated into Germany yet; mothers from Turkey and Eastern European countries, African countries, and others	30-min free play session, was assessed with the EA scales, one and a half months before the first cortisol assessment	Hair collection for cortisol (HCC) assessments	4 raters trained and certified, interrater reliability, ICC = 0.942–0.996	Children’s cortisol levels were higher after kindergarten entry than before; lower EA before kindergarten entry associated with a rise in HCC (negative correlation); children with low mother intrusiveness and higher child responsiveness associated with lower cortisol increases
[49]	Senehi et al. (in press)	Child age: 6–36 month old	10 white English speaking mother–child dyads; 29 Spanish speaking mother–child dyads	Participants were recruited from Denver metro area and were enrolled in early head start (EHS)	Quality of the parent–child relationship was assessed via the emotional availability scales	Adverse childhood experiences questionnaire Hair collection for cortisol (HCC) assessments	Interrater reliability, ICC = Not Yet Reported	In relationships with low EA, maternal ACEs (especially with 4 or more ACEs) were significantly associated with increased hair cortisol in their children. The relationship between maternal ACEs and children’s hair cortisol was not significant within the context of relationships with high EA
[50]	Philbrook and Teti (2016)	Child age: 3–9-month-old infants	82 mother–child dyads	Majority white, living with infant’s dad, middle class	Maternal EA during infant bedtime: coded at each age point using the EA scales. Videos set up for one night at 3, 6 and 9 months at family’s home. Coded from the moment camera turned up until 5 min of infant sleep. A composite EA score was calculated	Symptom checklist 90-revised (assesses depressive symptomology); sleep practices questionnaire; infant cortisol using saliva samples	Interrater reliability, ICC = 0.70–0.99	Higher maternal EA at bedtime associated with lower infant cortisol levels; infant’s stress responsivity often affected by mother’s caregiving; greater maternal responsiveness to non-distress infant cues associated with lower infant cortisol levels; more co-sleeping associated with higher cortisol levels
[51]	Ruttle et al. (2011)	Child age: M = 4.5 years, SD = 1.16 Mothers age: M = 30.84 years, SD = 2.87	75 mother–child dyads	Median family income range CND $8430–152,885; M = $43,918); level of mother education ranged from 4 to 18 years (M = 12 years, SD = 2.41)	Mother–child interaction tasks videotaped including the interactive free-play and interference task coded with the EA scales	Salivary cortisol was sampled three times from mother and child across a home visit	Interrater reliability, ICC = 0.84–0.99	Mother–child dyads demonstrate attunement of HPA axis activity; attunement prominent during times of increased challenge; factors associated with behavioral sensitivity may influence attunement within the dyad
[52]	Tarullo et al. (2020)	Child age: 12-month-old infants (86 infants) and 3.5-year-old children (87 children)	173 parent–child dyads (159 mothers, 14 fathers)	Participants were from the greater Boston metropolitan area	12-min videotaped parent–child interaction that included 5-min free play, 5-min structured play, and 2-min clean-up. Only the sensitivity subscale was coded	Hair cortisol concentration (HCC); diurnal salivary cortisol sampled 3 different nonconsecutive times; SES multidimensional assessment (income-to-needs ratio, confusion, hubbub, and order scale, neighborhood organization and affiliation scale-revised, household food insecurity access)	Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) for sensitivity subscale infant group ICC = 0.97 3.5-year-old group ICC = 0.81	Parent education was predictive of infant and child HCC. Neighborhood risk predicted infant HCC. Household chaos was related to bedtime salivary cortisol concentration (SCC). Parental sensitivity did not predict or mediate relations between SES and cortisol levels. Higher child HCC was correlated with greater food insecurity for both the infant and 3.5-year-old child group.
[53]	Gilisen et al. (2008)	Group 1 at 4 years old: child age: M = 3.8 years, SD = 0.3 Mothers age: M = 35.9 years, SD = 3.9 Fathers age: M = 38.3 years, SD = 5.2 Group 2 at 7 years-old: Child age: M = 7.4 years, SD = 0.3 Mothers age: M = 38.8 years, SD = 3.4 Fathers age: M = 41.1 years, SD = 4.7	Group 1 at 4 years old: 78 parent–child dyads Group 2 at 7 years old: 92 parent–child dyads (the first-born children of twin pairs)	All participants were born in the Netherlands. Mothers of the 4 year olds had completed 15.9 years (SD = 3.9) of education and the fathers had completed 16.3 years (SD = 3.7)	10-min free play episode of mother and 4 year old coded using the emotional availability scales	Ambulatory monitoring system to measure skin conductance; parasympathetic influence measured with electrocardiogram (ECG) electrodes; children’s behavior questionnaire (CBQ) to measure child temperamental fearfulness	Interrater reliability, ICC = 0.74–0.87	4 and 7 year olds both responded with increases in skin conductance (sympathetic activation) and decreases in heart rate variability (parasympathetic withdrawal) to the fear-inducing film clip. More fearful children were more susceptible to the quality of their relationships with their mothers than less fearful children, irrespective of their ages.
[54]	Van der Pol et al. (2019)	Child age: M = 4 years, SD = 0.1 Mothers age: M = 35.9 years, SD = 3.9 Fathers age: M = 39.3, SD = 4.7	159 father–child (second born) dyads	The majority of fathers had finished academic or higher vocational schooling (75%); were married or had a registered partnership or cohabitation agreement with the mother of the target child (92%)	Each dyad received a bag with toys and was invited to free play for 8 minutes; coded with the fourth edition of the emotional availability scales	Testosterone concentrations from fathers’ salivary samples; computerized go/nogo task used to measure self-control	Interrater reliability, ICC > 0.70	Higher father basal testosterone levels in the evening were related to less respect for child autonomy (only in fathers with low self-control). Higher father basal testosterone levels in the evening was related to more sensitive parenting (only in fathers with high self-control)
[55]	MacKinnon et al. 2018	Mothers age: M = 35.56 years, SD = 4.36	189 pregnant women	91.0% of mothers reported being married or living with their partner, 3.7% became single, divorced, or widowed since participation in the original study	Five minutes of free play with toys was filmed at follow-up at 7–9 weeks postpartum and coded using the emotional availability scales	Meins and Fernyhough’s (2015) procedure for interactional measures of mind-mindedness in the first year of life; reading the mind in the eyes test for theory of mind; maternal speech transcribed verbatim then identified mind-related comments	Interrater reliability, for all scales (ICCs = 0.51–0.71), except for nonhostility (ICC = 0.38)	Mothers’ reading the mind in the eyes test performance at 7–9 weeks postpartum was associated with more structuring and less intrusive maternal behavior at 2–3 years postpartum, while their tendency to use mind-related comments at 7–9 weeks postpartum was associated with greater sensitivity 2–3 years postpartum
[57]	Naber et al. (2010)	Child age: M = 33.8 months, SD = 11.8 Fathers age: M = 37.9 years, SD = 3.80	17 father–toddler dyads	Participants were all healthy volunteers with at least one child between 1.5 and 5 years of age	2 observed home play sessions of 15 min each coded using the emotional availability scales	single dose of 24 IU oxytocin nasal spray or placebo nasal spray	Interrater reliability average, ICC = 0.95	In the oxytocin condition fathers were more stimulating of their child’s exploration than in the placebo condition, and they tended to show less hostility