Table 2.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Factors to Modify Casein Micelles Structure and Functionalities.
| Physical Methods | Biochemical Effect | Charge on Casein | Chemical Methods | Biochemical Effect | Charge on Casein | Enzymatic Methods | Biochemical Effect | Charge on Casein |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Temperature (High) [42,84,86] Temperature (Low) [87,88] |
Blockage of lysyl residues by lactose β-lactoglobulin covalent association Calcium phosphate precipitation and solubilisation Β casein solubilisation |
Reduced negative charge Not determined |
Reaction with sugar Glycation [90] Lactosylation [91] |
Blockage of lysyl residues Blockage of lysyl residues |
More negative More negative |
Dephosphorylation [92,93] |
organic phosphate removal from phosphoseryl residues | Reduced negativity |
| pH (Acid) [94,95,96,97] pH (alkaline) [98,99] |
Protonation of casein Decrease of cations casein interactions Increase of the casein ionisation Insolubilisation of calcium phosphate |
Reduced negativity More negative |
Chemical Reticulation [100,101] |
Blockage of lysyl residues | More negative | Deamidation [102,103] |
- Release of ammonia from glutamine transformed into glutamic residues | More negative |
| Pressure [104,105,106,107] |
Casein micelles distruptions | Not determined | Phosphorylation [108] |
Reticulation [109,110] |
Lysyl and glutamine crosslinking | Enhanced negativity | ||
| Ultrasound [20,111,112,113] |
Casein micelles disruptions | Not determined | Glycosylation | Deglycosylation [114,115] |
- Release of NANA | No effect | ||
| Addition of cations (di & trivalent) [116,117] |
Direct association of added cation to casein Association of cation-inorganic phosphate to casein micelles Increase in ionic strength |
Less negative | Succinylation [103] Acetylation [118] |
Lysyl residues inhibition | More negative More negative |
Proteolysis [119,120] |
- Release of caseino macropeptide negatively charged between 106 to 169 peptides | Reduced negativity between 1–105 peptides |
| Adding salt [121,122] |
Micellar calcium solubilisation Ionic strength enhancement | No change | ||||||
| Removal of diffusible ions | Diffusible ions removal | More negative ions | ||||||
| Calcium chelatants addition [123,124] |
Casein and calcium association reductions Micellar calcium phosphate solubilisation |
More negative ions | ||||||
| External ligands addition [125] |
Hydrophobic and hydrogen interactions to caseins | ND |