Table 3.

Physical modification methods and effects of various polysaccharides.

Polysaccharides	Modification Methods	Th	MC/%	WS/%	TS	EB/%	WVP	Functional Characteristics
Cellulose	Blend CMC with gelatin and add Dianthus barbatus essential Oil [93]	0.100		9.86	0.16	68.37	2.19 × 10−7	More flexible Better antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
	Add dipalmitoyl lecithin liposomes loaded with quercetin and rutin to CMC matrix [133]	0.035–0.045						Antioxidant activity Sustained-release function (preserve poly- phenols and control their release)
	Add α-tocopherol and a mixture of polysorbate 80 and lecithin to CMC matrix [94]				44	18.5	12.45 × 10−11	More flexible Antioxidant activity and sustained-release function
	Add spent coffee grounds polysaccharides to CMC matrix [95]	0.070	21.63	50.52	26.04	6.84	3.36 × 10−10	Light barrier, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties
	Add cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) cone seeds extracts to HPMC matrix [98]	0.084			61.04	7.67	5.16 × 10−5	Light barrier and antioxidant properties
Hemicellulose	Add cellulose nanocrystals into wheat straw hemicelluloses matrix [102]		7.0–7.5	93.75	11.25	3.13	8.376 × 10−4	Improved tensile strength, modulus, water resistance, and water vapor barrier property
	Blend acetylated hemicellulose (DS 1.7) with acetylated nanocellulose (DS 2.34) [134]	0.250		17.67	10.59	15.49		Increasing DS and loading of acetylated nanocellulose, increased hydrophobicity (SWCA 68.29°) of composite and reduced its solubility in food simulants
	Blend konjac glucomannan (KGM) with microcrystalline cellulose [135]	40.53			5.12		WVTR: 3.38	Improved thermal stability, barrier and mechanical properties compared pure KGM film
	Add polydopamine functionalized microcrystalline cellulose into KGM matrix [135]	43.01			8.51		WVTR: 1.67	Better thermal stability, barrier and mechanical properties
	Add CS/gallic acid nanoparticles into KGM matrix [127]				42.50	26.61	11.25 × 10−11	Better thermal stability, water vapor barrier and tensile strength Obtain UV barrier and antimicrobial activity (S. aureus and E. coli O157:H7)
	Blend KGM with zein and add curcumin [136]				7.34			Better hydrophobic (SWCA: 32.6–57.5°), thermal stability and mechanical properties Good antioxidant (DPPH value: 42.6–51.48%) and antimicrobial activities
	Blend KGM with pectin [137]	0.048	17.91		15.75	22	1.76 × 10−10	Improved mechanical properties compared pure KGM or pectin film SWCA: 69.50°; DPPH value: 10.50%
	Add tea polyphenol into KGM/pectin matrix [137]	0.061	16.13		21.03	16.94	1.37 × 10−10	Better thermal stability, hydrophobicity, water vapor barrier, and tensile strength Improved antioxidant and antimicrobial activities (e.g., E. coli and S. aureus) SWCA: 88.43°; DPPH value: 50.46%
	Blend KGM with shellac [138]	0.106			13.8	20.5	11.28 × 10−5	Improved thermal stability, water resistance (SWCA 63.3°) and mechanical properties
Starch	Blend acetylated cassava starch with hydroxyethyl cellulose [96]	0.06		61.24			WVTR: 16.27	Films with higher concentrations of hydroxyethyl cellulose were thicker, more transparent and hygroscopic -OH groups in hydroxyethyl cellulose might have strongly bonded to the -COOH from acetylated starch, increasing the WS
	Blend carboxymethyl potato starch (DS 0.8) with carboxymethyl cellulose (DS 2.6) and add citric acid and glycerol [139]	0.2–0.3			3.4	29		E: 4.9 MPa Improve thermal, mechanical and hydrophilic properties
	Blend octenylsuccinated- (DS 0.0425) with native- sweet potato starch and add glycerol [120]	0.091	13.41	15.25	0.72	260	5.69 × 10−11	SWCA: 91.59°; Oil permeability: 0.149 ± 0.010 g·mm·d−1·m−2 Enhance moisture-proof property, elongation at break and transparency Damage tensile strength and surface morphology
	Blend acetylated- with native- corn starches and add glycerol to form thermoplastic corn starch [17]	0.129	9.26		23.99	6.14	1.20 × 10−10	Better barrier properties; OP: 2.57 × 10−5, CO2 Permeability: 3.32 × 10−5 cm3·d−1·m−1·Pa−1 Maintain mechanical properties
	Add CS into thermoplastic corn starch [140]	0.138			12.5	1.64	0.87 × 10−9	Higher UV absorption and opacity Better barrier and mechanical properties Antimicrobial property (e.g., S. aureus and E. coli)
	Add chitin into thermoplastic corn starch [140]	0.121			12.6	1.86	0.59 × 10−9
	Blend rice starch with carboxymethyl chitosan (DS 0.49) [110]	0.143			18.5	35	4.70 × 10−11	Better transparency, thermal stability, and mechanical properties Delayed biodegradation
	Blend hydroxypropyl high-amylose starch with pomegranate peel [141]	0.11			24.32	9.39		Good antibacterial properties (S. aureus and Salmonella) Better mechanical properties (e.g., stiffness, modulus, tensile strength and drop impact strength); E: 611.79 ± 72.11 MPa, Energy at peak load: 3.69 ± 0.43 J
Chitosan	Blend CS ascorbate (DS 0.80) with MC [89]	0.044	21.9	61	35	24.4	2.93 × 10−10	Better water solubility, barrier and mechanical properties Maintain antioxidant activity (EC50: 1.30)
	Blend CS with carboxymethyl chitosan and add nisin [142]	0.048		45.4	9.2	19.8	7.65 × 10−10	Carboxymethyl chitosan possessed plasticizing effect, led to higher EB, lower TS, and thermal stability Nisin reduces transparency and mechanical properties, but improves antimicrobial activity for Listeria monocytogenes and water solubility Combination of CS with CMCS improves the antimicrobial activity
	Blend CS with carboxymethyl chitosan [142]	0.021		15.4	25.4	58.4	3.43 × 10−10
	Add nisin into CS matrix [142]	0.043		37.5	11.4	15.3	6.35 × 10−10
	Blend CS with gelatin and add thymol [143]	0.104					WVTR: 2.18	Antioxidant and antifungal properties
	Blend CS with starch and add thymol [143]	0.108					WVTR: 1.32
	Blend CS with propolis extract [144]				17.5	12.1	0.578 × 10−8 OP: 0.21 × 10−8	Better gas barrier and mechanical properties Antimicrobial (e.g., S. aureus, Salmonella Enteritidis, E. coli, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and antioxidant activities
Polysaccharide gums	Blend agar with acid hydrolyzed cotton linter cellulose nanocrystals (which neutralized with NaOH) [145]	0.052			33.7	30.7	1.9 5 × 10−9	E: 0.72 ± 0.01 GPa; SWCA: 39.1° Better optical, thermal stability, mechanical, and water vapor barrier properties (When the addition of cellulose nanocrystals ≤5%)
	Blend agarose with CS [146]	0.013			42.35	16	6.95 × 10−11	Better hydrophobicity (SWCA: 97.7°) and mechanical properties, but slightly higher WVP
	Blend pectin (75–80% degree of esterification) with corn flour [147]	0.06	21.2	70.7	7.47		0.022 × 10−7	Improved mechanical, structural, thermal, and water vapor barrier properties Antioxidant activity, DPPH value: 13.97 ± 3.08%
	Blend CS (prepared from Callinectes sapidus) with (high methoxyl pectin (prepared from Citruis sinensis Osbeck peel) [148]	0.082	16.9		17.5	35	0.97 × 10−15	Better water vapor barrier and mechanical properties
	Blend gum tragacanth with locust bean gum [149]	0.047	13.07		20.28	1.10	0.83 × 10−4	Improved transparency, water barrier, and mechanical properties Decreased surface tension (53.97 ± 0.28 mN/m) could enhance the spreadability and coating integrity when applied to foods
	Blend low methoxyl with pectin sodium caseinate at pH 3 [150] and pH 7 [151]	0.040	14.5		15.64	9.35		Better E (182.97 ± 6.48 MPa) and TS Exist attractive interactions between the two negatively charged biopolymers Charge neutrality occurred for a sodium caseinate/low methoxyl pectin ratio corresponding to the maximal coacervation
	Add Origanum vulgare subsp. viride essential oil into basil seed gum [152]	0.060	17.92				3.69 × 10−11	Improved water vapor barrier Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities
	Add fish protein hydrolysate into agar matrix [153]	0.044		48.86	19.89	42.70	10.04 × 10−11	Higher mechanical properties, WVP, solubility, and yellowness Alcalase hydrolysate exhibited antimicrobial effect against five tested microorganisms (e.g., Staphylococcus aureus, Yersinia enterocolitica, Aeromonas hydrophila, Debaryomyces hansenii and Listeria innocua)
	Add clove essential oil into agar matrix [153]	0.061		20.86	10.16	3.93	9.37 × 10−11	Better hydrophobicity, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities

DS: Degree of substitution; Th: Thickness, mm; MC: Moisture content; WS: Water solubility; TS: Tensile strength, MPa; EB: Elongation at break; WVP: Water vapor permeability, g·m⁻¹·s⁻¹·Pa⁻¹; WVTR: Water vapor transmission rate, g·h⁻¹·m⁻²; OP: Oxygen permeability, cm³·m⁻¹·d⁻¹·Pa⁻¹; SWCA: Static water contact angle; EC₅₀: Antioxidant value against the DPPH radical (namely, the mass concentration of antioxidants produced a 50% scavenging effect against active free radicals), mg/mL; DPPH value: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging activity; E: Young’s modulus.