Table 2.

The role of autophagy modulation in GNM-induced cancer cell death.

GNM	Cell Type	Type of Cell Death	Autophagy Involvement	Cell Death Modulation	Cell Death Mechanisms	Ref.
GO + cisplatin	Skov-3 human ovarian carcinoma	necrosis	cytotoxic autophagy induction	↓ by ULK1 RNAi ↓ by ATG7 RNAi	nuclear import of LC3	[30]
GO + cisplatin	CT26 mouse colon carcinoma	necrosis	cytotoxic autophagy induction	↓ by 3-MA ↓ by BAF A1	nuclear import of LC3	[32]
blue light-excited GQD	U251 human glioma	apoptosis	cytotoxic autophagy induction	↓ by LC3B RNAi	↑ROS, ↑caspases	[39]
hydroxy-GQD	A549 human lung carcinoma	apoptosis	cytoprotective autophagy induction	↑ by 3-MA	n.a.	[40]
amino-GQD	A549 human lung carcinoma	apoptosis upon autophagy inhibition	cytoprotective autophagy induction	↑ by 3-MA	n.a.	[40]
GO-CQ conjugate	A549 human lung carcinoma	necroptosis	cytotoxic block of autophagic flux	↓ by p62 RNAi	↑ROS, ↑RIPK1, ↑RIPK3, ↑MLKL, p62 and ATG5 as scaffolds for necrosome assembly	[43]
GO	PC12 rat pheochromocytoma	apoptosis	cytotoxic block of autophagic flux	↓ by rapamycin ↓ by p62 RNAi	↑p62, ↑LMP, ↓ΔΨ, ↑Bax/Bcl-2, ↑caspase-3, ↑caspase-9	[44]
GNF	A549 human lung carcinoma	apoptosis	cytotoxic block of autophagic flux	↓ by 3-MA ↓ by LC3 RNAi	↑ROS, ↑LMP, ↓ΔΨ, ↑Bax/Bcl-2, ↓ATP, ↑caspase-3, ↓actin cytoskeleton	[45]
GO	F98 rat glioma	apoptosis	cytotoxic block of autophagic flux	↓ by rapamycin	↑p62, ↑Bax/Bcl-2, ↓ΔΨ, ↑caspase-3	[46]

↑, increase/activation; ↓, decrease/inhibition; n.a., not assessed; ΔΨ, mitochondrial membrane potential; 3-MA, 3-methyladenine; ATG, autophagy-related; BAF, bafilomycin; CQ, chloroquine; CTS, cathepsin; GNF, graphene nanofibers; GO, graphene oxide; GQD, graphene quantum dots; LC3, microtubule-associated light chain 3; LMP, lysosome membrane permeabilization; MLKL, mixed lineage kinase domain-like; RIPK, receptor-interacting protein kinase; ROS, reactive oxygen species; RNAi, RNA interference; ULK, Unc-51-like autophagy activating kinase.