Table 1.
List of publications on EVs’ therapeutic effect in SCI. Abbreviations: BM: bone marrow; UC: umbilical cord; MSC: mesenchymal stem/stromal cells; NSC: neural stem cells; iv: intravenous; it: intrathecal; in: intranasal; BSCB: blood–spinal cord barrier. ↑ Score: Increased mean BBB or BMS locomotor score from EVs treatment groups, compared to untreated controls.
| EVs Sources | Routes | Models | ↑ Score | Proposed Mechanisms | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rat BM-MSC | iv | contusion | 4.5 | at wk4 | anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation, pro-angiogenesis [117] |
| Rat BM-MSC | iv | contusion | 4.5 | at wk4 | neuroprotection, reduce A1 astrocytes, anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis [118] |
| Rat BM-MSC | iv | contusion | 3 | at wk4 | anti-microglia and A1 neurotoxic reactive astrocytes, anti-inflammation, anti-apoptosis, reduce scar, pro-angiogenesis [119] |
| Rat BM-MSC | iv | hemisection | 3 | at wk4 | inhibit complement activation [120] |
| Rat BM-MSC | iv | contusion | 2 | at wk4 | anti-apoptosis [121] |
| Rat BM-MSC | iv | hemisection | 6 | at wk4 | anti-apoptosis [122] |
| Rat BM-MSC | iv | contusion | 6 | at wk4 | inhibit pericyte migration, decrease BSCB permeability [123] |
| Rat BM-MSC (miR-133b-enriched) | iv | compression | 3 | at wk2 | decrease RhoA expression, axon growth [115] |
| Rat BM-MSC (miR-29b-enriched) | iv | contusion | 11 | at wk8 | Neuroprotection [124] |
| Rat BM-MSC (miR-126-enriched) | iv | contusion | 7 | at wk4 | anti-apoptosis, pro-neurogenesis, pro-angiogenesis [116] |
| Rat BM-MSC (hypoxic) | iv | contusion | 4 | at wk4 | macrophage polarization [125] |
| Human BM-MSC | iv | contusion | 3 | at wk2 | decreases reactive microglia and astrocytes [126] |
| Human UC-MSC | iv | contusion | 2 | at wk8 | macrophage polarization, anti-inflammation [127] |
| Human adipose-MSC | iv | contusion | 5 | at wk4 | attenuate NLRP3 inflammasome activation [128] |
| Rat NSC | it | compression | 6 | at wk4 | anti-inflammation [129] |
| Rat NSC | it | contusion | 7 | at wk4 | inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome complex formation [130] |
| Rat NSC (14-3-3t-enriched) | iv | contusion | 4 | at wk4 | enhance autophagy, anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation [131] |
| Rat-NSC (IFG-1-stimulated) | iv | contusion | 5 | at wk4 | anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation [132] |
| Mouse NSC | iv | contusion | 4 | at wk4 | activate autophagy, anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammation, anti-microglia [133] |
| Mouse pericytes | iv | contusion | 3 | at wk2 | improve microcirculation, protect BSCB, anti-apoptosis [134] |
| Human BM-MSC (PTEN siRNA) | in | full transection | 7.5 | at wk8 | anti-inflammation, anti-scarring, pro-angiogenesis, axon growth [35] |