Table 1.

Effects on BBB.

Agent	Effects on the blood–brain barrier
Dimethyl fumarate	↓ expression of adhesion molecules (VCAM-1 1, ICAM-1 2) [84]
Laquinimod	↓ expression of adhesion molecule ICAM-1 [102] ↓ expression of MMP-9 [103]
Fingolimod	↓ S1P1/S1P3 4 expression on the surface of the endothelial cells [110,111] ↓ VEGF 5 and ↓ vascular permeability [112]
Cladribine	↓ICAM-1, E-selectin ↓ MMP-2, -9 [136,139]
Natalizumab	Blocks the interaction between the α-4 integrin (lymphocyte surface) and VCAM-1 (endothelial surface) [73]
Interferon-beta	Ensures structural BBB stability in murine models [69,70,71]
Cortisone	↓ expression of adhesion molecules (VCAM-1, ICAM-1, E selectin) [144,148] ↓ MMP-1 and -9 [149] ↑ up-regulation of TJ (occludine, claudin) [150,151]

¹ Vascular cell adhesion molecule, ² Intracellular Adhesion Molecule, ³ Matrix Metalloproteinase, ⁴ Sphingosine-1-Phosphate receptor, ⁵ Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor.