Table 2.
Examples of phytochemicals known to have anti-inflammatory effects. Some papers cited did not have the information of the CID and CAS, and thus not all of the CID and CAS are based on the papers cited.
| Chemical Compounds | Type | Effects (Suppress, Enhance); Receptors/Channels and Pathways Other than Olfactory Receptors, If Known | Examples of Source Essential Oils or Plants | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Andrographolide CID: 5318517 CAS: 5508-58-7 |
Diterpene MW: 350.4 |
Suppresses: in vitro, Suppress NO, PLCγ2/PKC and PI3K/AKT-MAPK signaling pathways inhibiting platelet aggregation Vapor pressure: 1E-14 mmHg (25 °C) |
Green chiretta (Andrographis paniculata (Burm. f)) | [312] |
| Allicin CID: 65036 CAS: 539-86-6 |
MW: 162.3 | Suppresses: in vivo, 50 mg/kgbw for 5 days in rabbits infected with Pasteurella multocida improved the inflammatory markers [313] | Garlic | [313,314] |
| Apigenin CID: 5280443 CAS: 520-36-5 |
Flavonone MW: 270.24 |
Suppresses: in vitro, NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome action | parsley, celery, chamomile flowers | [315] |
| ß-Asarone CID: 5281758 CAS: 5273-86-9 |
Phen MW: 208.25 |
Suppresses: in vivo, suppress inflammatory cytokines, IL-6, IL-1 ß, iNOS, COX-2; suppress dizocilpine induced cognitive impairment; in vitro, suppressed LPS induced NO release, iNOS, COX-2, IL-1 ß, IL-6, TNFα, p65, lkBα, JNK, p38 | Acorus tatarinowii, Acorus gramineus, Asarum, Guatteria | [316,317] |
| α-Bisabolol CID:1549992 CAS: 515-69-5 |
Sesq MW: 222.37 |
Suppresses: review, inhibition of leukotriene synthesis, leukotriene synthesis, 5-LOX; in vivo, in vitro | German chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), Candeia (Eremanthus erythropappus), Smyrniopsis aucheri, Heartwood (Vanillosmopsis pohlii), sage (Salvia runcinate) | [276,318] |
| Bornyl acetate CID: 6448 CAS: 76-49-3 |
Mono MW: 196.29 |
Suppresses: IL-6, IL-8, MMP-1, MMP-13 Vapor pressure: 0.107 mmHg (25 °C) |
Amomum villosum | [275,278] |
| (-)-Borneol CID: 64685 CAS: 10385-78-1 |
Mono MW: 154.25 |
Suppresses: IL-1ß, IL-6, TNF-α, CD16, CD206 expressions, IL-10, phosphorylation of NF-kB, IkBa, p38, JNK, TRPA1 mediated cationic currents Enhances: NO, iNOS enzymatic activity Vapor pressure: 5.02 × 10−2 mmHg (25 °C) |
Sambong (Blumea balsamifera), Balkan heath, Dryobalanops aromatica (Borneol camphor), Erica spiculifolia; included in citrus peel oils, spices (nutmeg, ginger, thyme); skin irritation by contact; odor, such as camphor | [275,278,319] |
| Broussoflavonol B CID: 480828 CAS: 99217-70-6 |
Polyphenol MW:452.5 |
Activates: in vivo, in vitro, suppress pro-inflammatory responses by activating AMPK in 3T3-L1 adipocyte [320] | Paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) | [320] |
| Cafestol CID: 108052 CAS: 469-83-0 |
Diter MW: 316.40 |
Suppresses: review, PGE2, NO synthesis, COX2, iNOS, inhibit activation of inhibitor kB kinase Enhances: Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, increase the expression of HO-1 |
Coffee beans | [321] |
| Camphene CID: 6616 CAS: 79-92-5 |
Mono MW: 136.23 |
Suppresses: reduced nociceptive behavior Vapor pressure: 2.5 mmHg (25 °C) |
Cannabis sativa | [322] |
| (+/−)-Camphor CID: 2537 CAS: 76-22-2 |
Mono MW: 152.23 |
Suppresses: Receptors/Channels: TRPV1 Vapor pressure: 0.65 mmHg (25 °C) Hazardous warning |
Camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) | [278,296] |
| Cannabigerol CID: 5315659 CAS: 25654-31-3 |
Resorcinol MW:316.5 |
Suppresses: IL-1ß, TNF-α, IFN-γ, PPARγ, nitrotyrosine, SOD1, iNOS levels Enhances: restored Nrf-2 level Receptors/Channels: TRPM8 (some reports say TRPM8 antagonist), CB2, TRPA1, TRPV2, PPARγ, GPR55; |
Cannabis sativa, non-psychotropic; partial agonist of CB2 but the affinity depends on the assays. CB1 unclear [323]; non-psychoactive | [323,324] |
| Capsaicin CID: 1548943 CAS: 404-86-4 |
MW: 305.4 | Suppresses: in vivo, rat, significantly suppressed experimentally induced oedema due to egg albumin in the sub-plantar of the paw by IP injection of capsaicin (2 mL/kgbw) | Chili pepper | [325] |
| Carvacrol CID: 10364 CAS: 499-75-2 |
Mono MW: 150.22 |
Suppresses: reduced the activation of TLR4/NF-kB signaling pathway, suppressed IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-18, triglyceride, TNFα, suppressed levels of IKK, NALP3, NF-kB, TLR4, reduced p-IRS-1 and p-InsR levels (reduce insulin signaling molecules) in high glucose-induced HUVEC (human umbilical vein endothelial cells) Receptor: GABAA |
Sideritis, oregano, thyme, pepperwort, wild bergamot | [275,285,326] |
| L-Carveol CID: 7438 CAS: 99-48-9 |
Mono MW: 152.23 |
Suppresses: in vivo, in vitro, in silico, suppressed blood glucose in alloxan-induced diabetic rats [327]; in vitro, NF-kB activity, TNFα, IL-1 ß, IL-10 [328] | Orange peel, dill, seeds of caraway (Carum carvi) | [275,327,328] |
| L-Carvone CID: 7439 CAS: 99-49-0 |
Mono MW: 150.22 |
Suppresses: NF-kB activity, TNFα, IL-1 ß, IL-10 (S-carvone; [329], IL-13 (S-carvone), IgE (S-carvone) Enhances: IL-10 (R-carvone) [329], IFNγ Receptors/Channels: In vitro, activate hTRPA1 with EC50 value at 112.2 µM, 81% [297] Vapor pressure: 0.115 mmHg at 25 °C |
Caraway (Carum carvi) (S-carvone), spearmint (Mentha spicata) (R-carvone) | [275,297,328,329] |
| ß-Caryophyllene CID: 5281515 CAS: 87-44-5 |
Sesq MW: 204.35 |
Suppresses: IL-1ß, TNF-α, PGE2, iNOS, NO, ROS biomarkers, NF-kB, COX-2, IkBα; MMP8, Casp8, Casp4, IL-6 (in vivo, [16]), TREM1 signaling, VCAM-1 Enhances: IL-6 (in review, [278]), IL-19 Arg-1, urea, GSH parameters Receptor: CB2, (in vivo, [16]) |
Copaiba, lavender, rosemary, peppermint, common sage, clary sage, bushy lippia, Balkan heath | [16,278,319] |
| (+)-Catechin CID: 9064 CAS: 154-23-4 |
Flavonol MW: 290.27 |
Suppresses: in vitro, suppress LPS induced pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα, IL-1 ß, IL-6. | Green tea, berries, grape seeds, kiwi, red wine, beer, cacao, etc. | [330] |
| Chamazulene CID: 10719 CAS: 529-05-5 |
Sesq MW: 184.28 |
Suppresses: TNFα, IL-6, MMP3, MMP9, p65 NF-kB, iNOS, COX2 | chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), yarrow (Achillea millefolium) | [276,331] |
| 1,8-Cineole CID: 2758 CAS: 470-82-6 |
Mono MW: 154.25 |
Suppresses: in vivo, LTB4, PGE2, TNF-α, IL-1ß, leukotriene B4, thromboxane B2, BALF, NO, IL-6, MMP-9, IL-4, IL-13, IL-17A in BALF, IL-5, MCP-1 in nasal lavage fluids, IFN-γ in lung tissues, NF-kB p65, JNK, TREM-1, NLRP3, p38, MKP-1 phosphatase, NLRP3 inflammasome activation, acetylcholinesterase activities Enhances: IL-10, IkBα; in vivo, wound healing by Croton adamantinus oil [332] Receptors/Channels: TRPM8 Vapor pressure: 1.90 mmHg at 25 °C |
Eucalyptus, Alpinia calcarata(synonym: eucalyptol) | [275,278,296,300,301,302,303,332] |
| Cinnamaldehyde CID: 637511 CAS: 104-55-2 |
Phenyl MW: 132.16 |
Suppresses: VAM-1 and ICAM-1, NF-kB, NO, IL-1ß, IL-6, TNFα, iNOS, IRF3, COX2, PVGE2 (review [333]); in vivo, NO, IL-1ß, IL-18, TNF-α, IFN γ, HMGB-1 (high mobility group box 1 protein) [334] Vapor pressure: 2.89 × 10−2 mmHg at 25 °C |
Cassia oil, cinnamon bark oil | [333,334] |
| (E)-Cinnamyl acetate CID: 5282110 CAS: 103-54-8 |
MW: 176.21 |
Suppresses: in vivo, iNOS, COX-2, NF-kB, IkBα, decreased paw edema after CARR administration Increased: activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase in paw tissue after Carr administration [335]; NO and PGE2 production (review [333]) |
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia, Cinnamomum osmophloeum) | [333,335] |
| trans-Citral CID: 638011 CAS: 141-27-5 |
Mono MW: 152.23 |
Suppresses: NF-kB activation, COX-2, TRPV1-3, TRPM8, TRPV4, TRPA1 [284]; TNF, IL-6, IL-1ß, NO, macrophage activation, NLRP3 inflammasome activation; Compared to neral (isomer of cis-citral, neral), lower inhibitory effect on IL-1ß, iNOS, COX-2, and NLRP-2, and different inhibitory effects on phosphorylation of ERK1/2, JNK1/3, p38 and IkB [336] Channels: inhibitory effects on KV1.3 channel in vivo and in vitro [290], activate TRPA1, CB2 [284] |
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus); bushy lippia, lemon myrtle, Litsea citrate, Litsea cubeba, lemon tea-tree, Ocimum gratissimum, Lindera citriodora(synonym: geranial); 31.3% in L. cubeba fruits essential oil | [275,278,284,290,336,337,338] |
| cis-Citral CID: 643779 CAS: 106-26-3 |
Mono MW: 152.23 |
Suppresses: Compared to neral (isomer of citral, Citral B), lower inhibitory effect on IL-1ß, iNOS, COX-2, and NLRP-2, and different inhibitory effects on phosphorylation of ERK1/2, JNK1/3, p38 and IkB [336] | Litsea cubeba, 37.6% in L. cubeba fruits essential oil(synonym: neral) | [336] |
| Citronellol CID: 8842 CAS:106-22-9 |
Mono MW: 156.26 |
Suppresses: in vitro, down-regulated expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 [291] Receptors/channels: inhibitory effects on KV1.3 channel (ß-citronellol [290]) Vapor pressure: 0.02 mmHg at 25 °C |
Geranium oil | [275,278,290,291] |
| Curcumin CID: 969516 CAS: 458-37-7 |
Polyp MW: 368.40 |
Suppresses: in vitro, suppressed phosphorylation of IKK ß and NF-kB p65 and suppressed degradation of IkBα [339] Vapor pressure: 3.08 × 10−12 mmHg at 25 °C |
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) | [339,340,341] |
| Cyclocurcumin CID: 69879809 CAS: 153127-42-5 |
Polyp MW: 368.40 |
Suppresses: in vitro, higher neuroprotection than curcumin [342] | Turmeric (Curcuma longa); curcumin derivative | [341,342] |
|
p-Cymene CID: 7463 CAS: 99-87-6 |
Mono MW: 134.22 |
Suppresses: in vivo, NO, NF-kB activity, TNFα, IL-1α, IL-10, suppressed licking behavior after formalin-injection Vapor pressure: 1.50 mmHg at 25 °C |
Black cumin, rosemary, clove, Spanish oregano, valerian | [322,328] |
| Dehydrocostus lactone CID: 73174 CAS: 477-43-0 |
Sesq MW: 230.30 |
Suppresses: in vivo, NF-kB, COX2, TNF-α, IL-1ß, MCP-1, MPO, SOD, IL-6, IL-17, IL-23, IL-6/STAT3 inflammatory signaling pathway | Elecampane (Inula helenium), costus (Saussurea lappa) | [276,343] |
| Embelin CID: 3218 CAS: 550-24-3 |
benzoquinone MW: 294.4 |
Suppresses: in vivo, IP injection suppressed paw edema produced by carrageenan in rats | False black pepper (Embella ribes) | [344] |
| Epigallocatechin-3-gallate CID: 65064 CAS: 989-51-5 |
Polyphenol MW:458.4 |
Suppresses: review, alter NF-kB pathway, JAK/STAT pathway, PI3K/Akt pathway and suppress inflammation, down-regulate pro-inflammatory cytokines, COX, and reduce translocation of NF-kB to nucleus | Tea plant (Camellia sinensis) | [345] |
| Eugenol CID: 3314 CAS: 97-53-0 |
Mono MW: 164.20 |
Suppresses: in vivo, TNFα, IL-1ß, IL-6, NF-kB p65, suppress oxidative stress, reduced caspase-3 and p38 MAPK expressions in rats with spinal cord injury, IFNγ, IL-2, IL-10 Enhances: activate TRPA1, TRPV1 Vapor pressure: 0.0221 mmHg at 25 °C |
Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), | [296,346,347,348] |
| Eugenyl acetate CID: 7136 CAS: 93-28-7 |
Phenol MW: 206.24 |
Suppresses: in vitro, IFNγ, IL-2, IL-10 | Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata), especially in bud, Laurus nobilis | [348] |
| Farnesol CID: 445070 CAS: 106-28-5 |
Sesq MW: 222.37 |
Suppresses: in vivo, slightly decreased IL-4, TNFα/IL-19 ratio Enhances: IL-10; contact allergen [349] Vapor pressure: 3.94 × 10−5 mmHg at 25 °C |
Oils of lemongrass, chamomile, citronella | [276,349,350] |
| Ferruginol CID: 442027 CAS: 514-62-5 |
Diterp MW: 286.50 |
Suppresses: in vivo, TNFα, NF-kB, IL-1ß, COX2, MMP9, IL-6, iNOS in mice with ulcerative colitis | In needles of redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), heartwood of hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) | [351] |
| Geraniol CID: 637566 CAS: 106-24-1 |
Mono MW: 154.25 |
Suppresses: T cell proliferation, IL-2, TNF-α, IFN-γ; down-regulated expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 Receptors/channels: inhibitory to Kv1.3, in vivo, in vitro Vapor pressure: 3.0 × 10−2 mmHg at 25 °C |
Geranium, Ylang-ylang, cinnamon, coriander, lemon grass, citronella grass, clary sage, roses | [275,278,290,291] |
| Geranyl acetate CID: 1549026 CAS: 105-87-3 |
Mono MW: 196.29 |
Suppresses: reduced nociceptive behavior Receptors/Channels: In vitro, activate hTRPA1 with EC50 value at 20.5 µM, 74% Vapor pressure: 3.3 × 10−2 mmHg at 25 °C |
Citronella, lemongrass, neroli, geranium | [297,322] |
| 6-Gingerol CID: 442793 CAS: 23513-14-6 |
Phenol MW:284.4 |
Suppresses: review, inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines, decreasing inducible NO synthase and TNFα by suppression of lkBα phosphorylation, NF-kB nuclear activation, and PKC α translocation, suppress IL-6, IL-8, SAA1 [352]; review, suppress IL-1 ß, IL-6, TNFα, down-regulate NF-kB/MAPK signaling pathway, iNOS, COX-2, suppress astrocyte overactivation, inhibit the expression of GFAP and TNFα in rat brain Enhances: Intercellular ROS, NO, iNOS, improved cognitive ability, improved memory |
Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) | [352,353,354] |
| 10-Gingerol CID: 168115 CAS: 23513-15-7 |
Phenol MW: 350.50 |
Suppresses: review, suppress IL-1 ß, IL-6, TNFα significantly; greatest anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant effect compared to other gingerols [355]; review, suppress neuroinflammation [352] | Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) | [352,353,355] |
| 18 α-Glycyrrhizin CID: 158471 18 ß-Glycyrrhizin CID: 3495 18 ß-Glycyrrhetinic acid CID:14982 |
Triterp |
Anti-inflammatory: 18ß-Glycyrrhizin ,suppressed PGE2, ROS, TNFα, COX-2, iNOS, 18α-Glycyrrhizin, stronger anti-inflammatory effect than 18ß-Glycyrrhizin, 18ß-Glycyrrhetinic acid, anti-oxidant, decreased lipid peroxidation, suppressed NO, PGE2, ROS, iNOS, COX-2, LPS-induced TNFα, IL-6, IL-1ß [356]; 18ß-Glycyrrhetinic acid, suppressed LPS-induced iNOS, COX-2, TNFα, IL-6, IL-1ß [357] |
Licorice Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., G. inflata Bat., G. glabra L., roots and rhizomes | [356,357] |
| Herbacetin CID: 5280544 CAS: 527-95-7 |
Flavonol MW: 302.23 |
Suppresses: in vitro, RAW264.7 cells, reduced NO production, reduced the release of TNFα, IL-1ß, suppressed JNK kinase, NF-kB [358]; in vivo, in vitro, down-regulated MMP-9 and cathepsin K, significantly reduced LPS-induced inflammatory bone loss [359] | Ephedrae herba | [358,359] |
| Humulene CID: 5281520CAS: 6753-98-6 |
Sesq MW: 204.35 |
Suppresses: review, IL-5, CCL11, leukotriene B4 level, NF-kB and AP-1 activation (synonym: α-caryophyllene; α-humelene) |
Aniba parviflora, cannabis, hop | [276,278,360] |
| Isoliquiritigenin CID: 638278CAS: 961-29-5 |
ChalconeMW: 256.25 | Suppresses: in vitro, NO production, TNFα, IL-6, iNOS in IL-1ß treated cells | Licorice Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., G. inflata Bat., G. glabra L., roots and rhizomes | [361] |
| (-)-Isopulegol CID: 170833 CAS: 89-79-2 |
Mono MW: 154.25 |
Suppresses: IL-1ß, TNFα, decreased albumin extravasation, leukocyte migration and myeloperoxidase (MPO) enzyme concentration Receptor: GABAA |
Ironwort (Sideritis), chemical precursor to menthol, also found in lemongrass and geranium | [285,362] |
| Kahweol CID: 114778 CAS: 6894-43-5 |
Diter MW: 314.40 |
Suppresses: review, PGE2, NO synthesis, COX2, iNOS, inhibit activation of inhibitor kB kinase Enhances: Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, increase the expression of HO-1 |
Coffee beans | [321] |
| Kaempferol CID: 5280863 CAS: 520-18-3 |
Flavonol MW: 286.24 |
Suppresses: in vitro, NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome action Vapor pressure: 0.0 ± 1.5 mmHg (25 °C) |
Grapes, tomatoes, broccoli | [315] |
| Kazinol J CID: 21637732 |
Polyphenol MW:410.5 |
Activates: in vivo, in vitro, suppress pro-inflammatory responses by activating AMPK in 3T3-L1 adipocyte | paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) | [320] |
| Kirenol CID: 15736732 |
Diter MW: 338.50 |
Suppresses: in vitro, in vivo, IL-6, IL-8, MMP-9, MAPK, p65, P50, JAK gene expression in RA-FLS (rheumatoid arthritis-associated synovial fibroblasts) | Siegesbeckiae Herba (S. pubescens Makino S. orientalis L., S. glabrescens Makino) | [363] |
| Licochalcone A CID: 5318998 Licochalcone B CID: 5318999 Licochalcone C CID: 9840805 Licochalcone D CID: 10473311 Licochalcone E CID: 46209991 |
Flavonoid | Suppresses: key factors for biological activities, Licochalcone A, suppress NO, IL-6, PGE2 IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, Licochalcone C, suppressed iNOS, Licochalcone E suppressed PKC/JNK, ERK1/2, iNOS, COX-2, IL-6, IL-1ß, IL-12 p40, TNF- α, AKT, p38 MAPK | Licorice Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fisch., G. inflata Bat., G. glabra L. | [356] |
| D-Limonene CID: 440917 CAS: 5989-27-5 |
Mono |
Suppresses: TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, NF-kB, COX-2, iNOS, NO levels, p38, JNK activation; lipoxygenase; in vitro, down-regulated expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 [291] Receptors/Channels: In vitro, activate hTRPA1 with EC50 value at 54.3 µM, 83% [297] Vapor pressure: 1.98 mmHg at 25 °C |
Citrus aurantium (bitter orange, daidai) | [275,278,291,297] |
| Linalool CID: 6549 CAS: 78-70-6 |
Mono MW: 154.25 |
Suppresses: TNF-α, IL-6, NO, IL-1ß, PGE2, p38, MAPK, NOS2, COX2, IL-18, IFN-γ, HMGB-1, MLNs, Nrf2 markers, iNOS expression, NF-kB activation, JNK activation, phosphorylation of IkBα protein, p38, c-JNK, ERK; in vivo, NO, IL-1ß, IL-18, TNF-α, IFN γ, HMGB-1 (high mobility group box 1 protein) [334] Enhancees: Nuclear Nrf-2 protein translocation; anxiolytic effect through GABA [19]; enhance recovery after ischemia [21] Receptors, pathways involved: GABA, TRPA1, TRPM8; inhibitory effects on KV1.3 channel in vivo and in vitro [290]; In vitro, activate hTRPA1 with EC50 value at 167.7 µM, 89% [297] Vapor pressure: 0.159 mmHg at 23.5 °C |
Mint, rosewood, lavender, laurel, sweet basil, Cinnamomum osmophloeum Kanehira | [19,21,275,278,290,296,297,334] |
| Linalyl acetate CID: 8294 CAS: 115-95-7 |
Mono MW: 196.29 |
Suppresses: In vitro, suppressed TNFα induced E-selection, P-selection, vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM1), suppressed NF-kB activation [364] Receptors/Channels: In vitro, activate hTRPA1 with EC50 value at 30.2 µM, 69% [297] Vapor pressure: 0.111 mmHg at 25 °C |
Bergamot, lavender; acetate ester of linalool | [275,297,364] |
| Luteolin CID: 5280445CAS: 491-70-3 |
polyphenol MW: 286.24 |
Suppresses: review, in vivo, in vitro, regulates cytokines by suppressing IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-2, IL-8, IL-12, IL-17, TNFα, which are pro-inflammatory cytokines, and enhancing IL-10, which is anti-inflammatory cytokine | apples, carrots, celery, olive oil, rosemary, thyme, oregano, chamomile and many others | [365] |
| 1-Menthol CID: 16666 CAS: 89-78-1 |
Mono MW: 156.26 |
Suppresses: in vivo, increased survival rates in mice with myocardial infarction. Suppressed TNFα, IL-1ß, IL-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1) [366]; in vivo and in vitro, inhibits acid-induced inflammation, suppress TNFα, IL-1ß, IL-6 through regulating TRPV1 [367] Receptors/Channels: TRPM8, TRPV1 |
Genus Mentha, Corn mint, peppermint | [275,300,337,366,367] |
| Menthone CID: 26447 CAS: 14073-97-3 |
Mono MW: 154.25 |
Suppresses: in vivo, alleviate depression symptoms, suppressed expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, IL-1ß, IL-6, TNFα, NLRP3 inflammasome [368] | Genus Mentha | [275,368] |
| Methyl eugenol CID: 7127 CAS: 93-15-2 |
Phenyl MW: 178.23 |
Suppresses: in vitro, inhibited the release of ß-hexosaminidase, TNFα IL-4, PGE2, prostaglandin D2, leukotriene B4, leukotrience C4, Syk phosphorylation and expression ERK1/2, p38, JNK phosphorylation, cytosolic phospholipase A2, 5-lipoxygenase phosphorylation, COX2 expression, considered to inhibit allergic response by these suppressions Enhances: in vivo, wound healing by Croton adamantinus oil [332] Receptors/channels: Nav1.7, GABAA Vapor pressure: 0.012 mmHg at 25 °C |
Croton adamantinus (major chemical compound methyl eugenol and 1,8-cineole) [332]; Anti-allergic, antinaphylactic, antinociceptive, anti-inflammatory effects | [18,287,332,369] |
| Myrcene CID: 31253 CAS: 123-35-3 |
Mono MW: 136.23 |
Suppresses: review, NO, iNOS, NF-kB, p38, JNK activation Vapor pressure: 2.09 mmHg at 25 °C |
Dill, cinnamon, coriander, lemon grass, citronella grass, English lavender, bushy lippia, common sage, clary sage, myrcia, bay, rosemary, cannabis, ylang-ylang, wild thyme, parsley, cardamom, hops | [275,278,337] |
| Nootkatone CID: 1268142 CAS: 4674-50-4 |
Sesq MW: 218.33 |
Suppresses: in vivo, suppressed edema, inhibition of IL-1ß, TNFα production, inhibition of COX-2 activity, anti-H1 receptor [370]; in vitro, show synergistic effect of suppressing inflammation with schisandrin, a polyphenol included in Schisandra genus [371] Vapor pressure: 0.003 mmHg at 25 °C |
In many species of Citrus, black cardamom (Alpinia oxyphylla) | [276,370,371] |
| (E)-ß-Ocimene CID: 5281553 CAS: 3779-61-1 |
Mono MW: 136.23 |
Suppresses: NO production inhibition; NO scavenging effect; inhibited inducible NO synthase expression | Basil (Ocimum basilicum), water hemlock (Ocenanthe crocata) common wormwood or absinthe (Artemisia absinthium) and many others | [17,337,372] |
| Oleanolic acid CID: 10494 CAS: 508-02-1 |
Tri MW: 456.70 |
Suppresses: IL-6 and TNF-α [373]; in vitro, inhibit NF-kB activation [374] Enhances: cell viability and release of lactate dehydrogenase |
Olive (Oleaceae), grapes (Vitis vinifera) | [373,374] |
| Osthole CID: 10228 CAS: 484-12-8 |
Coum MW: 224.28 |
Suppresses: in vivo and in vitro, NO, PGE2, TNFα, IL-6, iNOS, COX-2, p38 MAPK, IkB [375] Receptors/Channels: In vitro, activate hTRPA1 with EC50 value at 6.0 µM, 92% [297] Vapor pressure: 6.9 × 10−6 mmHg at 25 °C |
Cnidium (Cnidium monnieri), shishiudo or du huo (Angelica pubescens) | [297,375,376] |
| Parthenolide CID: 7251185 CAS: 20554-84-1 |
Sesq MW: 248.32 |
Suppresses: Binds directly to IkB kinase ß (IKKß) and inhibits its activity. IkB is an inhibitor of NF-kB and becomes phosphorylated by IkB kinase complex, IKK. There are two forms: IKKα and IKKß. (in vitro, [377]), thus parthenolide suppress NF-kB by targeting IkB kinase (in vitro, [378]); Parthenolide depleted feverfew still has anti-inflammatory effects (in vitro, [379]) Others: allergen (human subjects, [380]) |
Feverfew (Tanacetum parthenium) | [337,377,378,379,380] |
| Perillyl alcohol CID: 10819 CAS: 536-59-4 |
Mono MW: 152.23 |
Suppresses: review, oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation, IL-1ß, TNFα, IL-6, COX-2, NOS-2, NF-kB Enhances: levels of glutathione, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, and glutathione reductase Others: D-limonene metabolite; strong candidate for cancer treatments; induce apoptosis to cancer cells; oral treatment cause intestinal side effects; tissue regeneration improved; blocked formalin-, capsaicin-, and glutamate-induced nociceptive behavior |
Lavender, sage, peppermint, lemongrass, cannabis, hop | [275,360] |
| α-pinene CID: 2723720 |
Mono MW: 136.23 |
Suppresses: review, NF-kB, ERK, JNK; G2/M-phase cell cycle arrest miR-221 expression level Enhances: CDKN1B/p2-CDK1 and ATM-p52- Chk2 pathways activated |
Pine, coniferous species, sagebrush, ironwort, sage, Cannabis, Humulus | [278,337] |
| (R)-(+)-Pulegone CID: 442495 CAS: 89-82-7 |
Mono MW: 152.23 |
Suppresses: in vivo, suppressed skin thickness and scratching, serum IgE level, IL-4, IFN-γ, IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1ß, phosphorylation of MAPK, inhibited IkBα degradation and NF-kB activation [381] | Mint species, for example, Mentha spicata Mentha pulegium, Mentha piperita, Hedeoma multiflorum, Minthostachys mollis, Satureja boliviana, Satureja odora, | [275,381,382] |
| Sabinene CID: 18818 CAS: 3387-41-5 |
Mono MW: 136.23 |
Suppresses: in vitro, using whole essential oil from hallabong flower which included 34.75% sabinene, suppressed NO, PGE2, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1 ß [383]; suppressed NO production in lipopolysaccharide and IFN-γ stimulated macrophages [372] | Oenanthe crocata, 34.75% in Hallabong flower (Citrus unshiu Marcov × Citrus sinensis Osbeck) × Citrus reticulata Blanco | [372,383] |
| Santamarine CID: 188297 CAS: 4290-13-5 |
Sesq MW: 248.32 |
Suppresses: Suppress NF-kB activation, induces oxidative stress in cancer cells [384] | Southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), weakleaf bur ragweed (Ambrosia confertiflora) | [275,384] |
| 6-shogaol CID: 5281794 CAS: 555-66-8 |
MW: 276.40 | Suppresses: review, inhibits direct binding between intercellular adhesion molecule, inhibits production of prostaglandin E2 and pro-inflammatory cytokines, together with 10-gingerol, suppressed NO, IL-1 ß, IL-6, TNF-α | Ginger (Zingiber officinale); Dehydration product of gingerol | [352] |
| Spathulenol CID: 92231 CAS: 6750-60-3 |
Sesq MW: 220.35 |
Suppresses: in vivo and in vitro. Using whole essential oil which contains 80% spathulenol. Inflammation measured by swelling in carrageenan-induced paw oedema | Brazilian guava (Psidium guineense Sw.) | [385] |
| α-terpinene CID: 7462 CAS: 99-86-5 |
Mono MW: 136.23 |
Suppresses: review, COX21 Enhances: review, Strong anti-oxidant; increased longevity of mice infected with Trypanosoma evansi |
Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), Litsea, cannabis, hops | [275,360] |
| γ-terpinene CID: 7461 CAS: 99-85-4 |
Mono MW: 136.23 |
Suppresses: review, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6 Enhances: review, IL-10, COX-2, PGE2; In vivo, anti-nociceptive effect to formalin, capsaicin, glutamate-induced pain in rats, cholinergic and opioid systems were involved in anti-nociceptive effects [386] Vapor pressure: 1.09 mmHg |
Narrow-leaved paperbark (Melaleuca alternifolia), thyme, savories (Satureja), cannabis, hops | [278,360,386] |
| Terpinen-4-ol CID: 11230CAS: 562-74-3 |
MonoMW: 154.25 |
Suppresses: NF-kB, NLRP3, IkBα, NF-kB p65; IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-10 Enhances: PPAR-γ, Route: GABAergic system Vapor pressure: 0.04 mmHg at 25 °C |
Tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia), lavender | [275,278] |
| α-terpineol CID: 17100 CAS: 98-55-5 |
Mono MW: 154.25 |
Suppresses: Nitrite production, NF-kB, IL-1ß, IL1R1; IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-10, IL-4, IL-17 TNF-α, COX-2, iNOS, Enhances: IL-10 Vapor pressure: 0.0423 mmHg at 24 °C |
Melaleuca genus, eucalyptus, Balkan heath (Erica spiculifolia), cajuput, pine, orange juice | [275,278,319,387,388] |
| Terpinolene CID: 11463 CAS: 586-62-9 |
Mono MW: 136.23 |
Suppresses: IL-6, TNF-α, NO Vapor pressure: 0.74 mmHg at 25 °C |
Melaleuca genus; Myrtle (Myrtus communis L., Myrtaceae) | [278] |
| Thymol CID: 6989 CAS: 89-83-8 |
Mono MW: 150.22 |
Suppresses: in vitro, IL-8, TNFα, reactive oxygen species (ROS) [389] Enhances: barrier function Vapor pressure: 0.016 mmHg at 25 °C |
Lippia gracilis Schauer, oregano species, thyme species, Balkan heath (Erica spiculifolia) | [275,319,337,389] |
| Thymoquinone CID: 10281 CAS: 490-91-5 |
Mono MW: 164.20 |
Suppresses: in vivo and in vitro, suppressed NO, iNOS, TNFα, COX2, IL-6, IL-1ß in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated murine macrophage-like RAW264.7 cells, suppression of IRAK-linked AP-1/NF-kB pathways, suppressed hepatitis and gastritis symptoms in mouse models [390] | Black seed (Nigella sativa) | [275,390] |
| Tomentosin CID: 155173 CAS: 33649-15-9 |
Sesq MW: 248.32 |
Suppresses: in vitro, NF-kB, MAP, NO, PGE2, iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, IL-6, p65 | Inula japonica, Inula viscosa (syn. Dittrichia viscosa Greuter), | [276,391] |
| Tussilagone CID: 13919185 CAS: 104012-37-5 |
Sesq MW: 390.50 |
Suppresses: in vitro, suppressed production of NO, TNF-α, PGE2, iNOS, COX2 [392]; in vivo, protective effect against dextran sulfate sodium-induced acute colitis in mice, TNF-α, IL-6, and myeloperoxidase activity reduced [393] Enhances: heme oxygenase-1 |
Flower and buds of Tussilago farfara | [276,392,393] |
| Ursolic acid CID: 64945 CAS: 77-52-1 |
Tri MW: 456.70 |
Suppresses: in vitro, IL-6 and TNF-α [373]; in vitro, inhibit NF-kB activation [374] Enhances: cell viability and release of lactate dehydrogenase Vapor pressure: 3.49 × 10−14 mmHg at 25 °C |
Various fruits and vegetables (apples, berries, peppermint, lavender, oregano, etc.) | [373,374,394] |
| Valencene CID: 9855795 CAS: 4630-07-3 |
Sesq MW: 204.35 |
Suppresses: in vivo and in vitro, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-13, NF-kB, CXCL8, GM-CSF, I-CAM, reduced atopic dermatitis-like symptoms [395] Enhances: skin barrier protein, involucrin increased in murine skin [395] |
Nut grass (Cyperus rotundus), Citrus; orange peel oil | [276,395] |
Mono: monoterpene (number of C atoms C10, 2 isoprene units), Sesq: sesquiterpene (C15, 3 isoprene units), Diterp: diterpene (C20, 4 isoprene units), Tri: triterpenoid, Guaia: guaiacol, Mero: a chemical compound containing terpenoid structure, NO: nitric oxide, COX2: cyclooxygenase 2, iNOS: nitric oxide synthase, TNFα: tumor necrosis factor α, NF-kB: nuclear factor-kappa B, PPAR-α: peroxisome proliferator activated receptor α, TRP: transient receptor potential, -: none or not so many studies, or no in vitro and/or in vivo studies at chemical compound level to be convincing.