Table 4.
Essential oils, plants and fruits with anti-inflammatory effects and expected anti-SARS-CoV-2 effects from their binding affinity to SARS-CoV-1 or 2, or from results of in vitro assays.
| Oils, Plants, Fruits Type | Major Chemical Constituent | Confirmed Effects and Binding Affinities |
|---|---|---|
| Ashitaba (Angelica keiskei) |
4-hydroxyderricin (CID: 6438503; CAS: 55912-03-3) | Anti-viral: [411] |
| Xanthoangelol (CID: 643007; CAS: 62949-76-2) | Anti-viral: [411,425] | |
| Bitter orange (Citrus aurantium L. (Rutaceae)) |
Limonene | Anti-inflammation [275,278,297] |
| Linalool | Anti-inflammation [19,20,21,22,275,278,290,296,297] | |
| β-Myrcene | Anti-inflammation [275,278,337] | |
| Kaempferol | Anti-inflammation [315] | |
| Quercetin | Anti-viral: [411,423] | |
| Luteolin | Anti-viral: COV2 by binding affinity to 3CLpro [421]; to 3pro and ACE2 [422] | |
| Cinnamon (Cinnamomum) |
Camphor: 60% in root bark [426] | Anti-inflammation [278,296] |
| Cinnamaldehyde: 65–80% in bark [426] | Anti-viral: [408] | |
| Z-Cinnamyl acetate: 42–54% in fruit [426]; 11.85% in Cinnamomum verum oil [427] | Anti-viral: [408] | |
| E-Cinnamyl acetate: 41.98% in flowers of Ceylon cinnamon, Cinnamomum zeylanicum [426]; 11.78% in Cinnamomum verum oil [427] | Anti-viral: [408] | |
| Eugenol: 70~95% in leaves [428], Cinnamomum zeylanicum [426] | Anti-inflammation [296,346,347,348] | |
| Linalool: 16.85% in Cinnamomum verum oil [427] | Anti-inflammation [19,20,21,22,275,278,290,296,297] | |
| Citronella oil | See lemongrass | |
| Clove (Syzygium) |
ß-Caryophyllene: 17.4% in leaf [429], 1.39% in bud [430], 14.84% and 12.79% in bud from Java and Manado, Indonesia, respectively [431]; 4.5% in oil [432] | Anti-inflammation [16,278,319] |
| Eugenol: 88.6% in bud [430], 74.65% and 55.65% in bud from Java and Manado, Indonesia, respectively [431], 76.8% in leaf [429], 69.4% in bud [433]; 85.7% in oil [432] | Anti-inflammation [296,346,347,348] | |
| Eugenyl acetate: 10.79% [433], 1.2% in leaf [429], 20.54% and 8.7% in bud from Java and Manado, Indonesia, respectively [431] | Anti-inflammation [348] | |
| α-Humulene: 2.1% in leaf [429], 2.75% and 1.53% in bud from Java and Manado, Indonesia, respectively [431] | Anti-inflammation [276,278,360] | |
| Copaiba (Copaifera) |
ß-Caryophyllene: 24.9% in oil [434], 21.7% in oil [435] | Anti-inflammation [16,278,319] |
| α-Bergamotene: 20.5% in oil [435] | - | |
| ß-Bisabolene: 23.6% in oil [435] | - | |
| α-Humulene: 2.9% in oil [435] | Anti-inflammation [276,278,360] | |
| Caryophyllene oxide: 4.1% in oil [435] | Allergen | |
| Cypress (Hinoki) (Chamaecyparis obtusa) |
α-cadinol: 10.9% in oil [436] | Anti-viral [407] |
| Borneol: 16.0% in oil [436] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,319] | |
| Dehydroabieta-7-one | Anti-viral [407] | |
| 6,7-Dehydroroyleanone | Anti-viral [407] | |
| Ferruginol: inclusion and % varies largely | Anti-inflammation [309] | |
| ß-Hydroxyabieta-9(11) | Anti-viral [407] | |
| α-Terpineol: 19.4% in oil [436] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,319,387,388] | |
| Elderberry (Sambucus nigra L.) |
Quercetin | Anti-viral [411,423] |
| Rutin | Anti-viral [412,423] | |
| Kaempferol | Anti-inflammation [437] | |
| Caffeic acid | Anti-inflammation [437] | |
| 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid | Anti-inflammation [437] | |
| Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus) |
Borneol: 5.5% in leaf and 5.5% in fruit [438] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,319] |
| 1,8-Cineole (eucalyptol): large percentage difference among species and countries of origin, 2.9% to 90.0% [439], species percentage differences in leaves from 49.07 to 83.59% [300], 14.1% in leaf and 34.5% in fruit [438] | Anti-inflammation [11,238,241,261,262,265,267,291,400] | |
| p-Cymene: 42.1% in leaf and 30.0% in fruit [438] | Anti-inflammation [322,328] | |
| Limonene: 5.5% in leaf and none in fruit [438], 1.33% in E. lehmani leaves and 3.32% in E. sideroxylon leaves [300], from 0% to 28% depending on the species and location [439] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,297] | |
| α-Pheliandrene: from 0% to 20.1% depending on the species and location [439] | Anti-inflammation [278] | |
| α-Pinene: 12.7% in leaf and 9.0% in fruit [438], from 1.27% to 26.35% in 7 Eucalyptus species’ leaves with highest in E. lehmani [300], from 0% to 52.7% depending on the species and location [439] | Anti-inflammation [278,337] | |
| Spathulenol: 3.2% in leaf and none in fruit [438], 1.15% in E. astrengens leaves [300], from 0% to 41.5% depending on the species and location [439] | Anti-inflammation [387] | |
| γ-Terpinene: none in leaf and 5.1% in fruit [438], from 0% to 29.2% depending on the species and location [439] | Anti-inflammation [278,360,386] | |
| Geranium (Pelargonium) |
ß-bourbonene: 2.7% in oil from Tajikistan [440] | - |
| Caryophyllene oxide: 3.7% in oil from Tajikistan [440] | Allergen [441] | |
| Citronellol: 37.5% in oil from Tajikistan [440] |
Anti-inflammation [275,278,290,291] Anti-viral: Down-regulated expression of ACE2 and TMPRSS2, |
|
| Geraniol: 6.0% in oil from Tajikistan [440] |
Anti-inflammation [275,278,290,291] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Geranyl formate: 2.0% in oil from Tajikistan [440] | ||
| Linalool: 3.0% in oil from Tajikistan [440] | Anti-inflammation [19,20,21,22,275,278,290,296,297] | |
| Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) |
6-Gingerol: (23–25%) [442] Other chemical constituents: 10-gengerol, 6-shogaol, α-Terpinene, α-Terpineol, 4-Terpineol, Terpinolene, γ-Terpinolene, Cineole, Nerol, Borneol, Citronellol, Geraniol, Linalool, Camphor, Neral |
Anti-viral: [409] |
| Lavender (Lavandula) |
Borneol: 0.3% to 22.4% [443] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,319] |
| Camphor: none to 11.76% [443] | Anti-inflammation [278,296] | |
| ß-Caryophyllene: none to 3.2% [443] | Anti-inflammation [16,278,319] | |
| 1,8-Cineole (Eucalyptol): 0.1% to 10.89% depending on location [443] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,296,297,300,302,303] | |
| Geraniol: none to 11.02% [443] |
Anti-inflammation [275,278,290,291] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Lavandulol: 3.7% in oil [444] | - | |
| Lavandulol acetate (lavandulyl acetate): 0.2% to 21.6% in oils depending on location [445]; 5.7% in oil [444]; 12.68% in oil [446], none to 10.78% [443] | - | |
| Linalool: 49.9% in oil [444]; 19.71% in oil [446], 4.91% to 57.48% [443] | Anti-inflammation [19,21,22,275,278,290,296,297] | |
| Linalyl acetate: 9.3% to 68.8% in oils depending on location [445]; 14.4% in oil [444]; 26.61% in oil [446], none to 35.39% [443] | Anti-inflammation [275,297,364] | |
| Myrcene: 1.4% in oil [444] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,337] | |
| Ocimene: 2.4% to 2.6% in oil [444] | Anti-inflammation [17,337,372] | |
| 4-Terpineol, terpinen-4-ol (isomer of terpineol): 0.1% to 5.8% in oils depending on location [445], none to 8.07% [443] |
Anti-inflammation [275,278] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) |
ß-Caryophyllene: 3.26% in oil [447], 1.09 in oil [338] | Anti-inflammation [16,278,319] |
| Citral A (Geranial, E-isomer of citral): 37.40% in oil from Guangxi, China [448], 26.1% in oil [447], 37.58 to 45.95% in oil [449], 40.16% in oil [338] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,284,290,337] | |
| Citral B (Neral, Z-isomer of citral): 31.97% in oil from Guangxi, China [448], 31.5% in oil [447], 29.44 to 31.13% in oil [449], 34.24% in oil [338] | Anti-inflammation: [336] | |
| Citronellol: 1.10% in oil from Guangxi, China [448], 2.95% in oil [447], 0.35% to 0.51% in oil [449] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,290,291] | |
| Geraniol: 1.55% in oil from Guangxi, China [448], 2.15% in oil [447], 5.11% in oil [338] |
Anti-inflammation [275,278,290,291] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Geranyl acetate: 1.06% to 2.16% in oil [449], 2.27% in oil [447], 2.89% in oil [338] | Anti-inflammation [297,332] | |
| Juniper camphor: 1.28 to 2.82% [449] | - | |
| Limonene: 0.65% in oil from Guangxi, China [448], 2.32% in oil [447], 0.33% in oil [338] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,297] | |
| Linalool: 1.12% in oil from Guangxi, China [448], 0.58% to 0.87% [449], 1.45% in oil [338] | Anti-inflammation [19,20,21,22,275,278,290,296,297]. | |
| Myrcene: 15.65% in oil from Guangxi, China [448] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,337] | |
| Licorice (Glycyrrhiza spp.) |
Over 20 triterpenes and 300 flavonoids of natural active compounds and 73 bioactive compounds identified. “3 triterpenes, 18b-GC, 18a-GC and 18b-glycyrrhetinic acid (18b-GA), and 13 flavonoids, licochalcone A (LCA), licochalcone B (LCB), licochalcone C (LCC), licochalcone D (LCD), licochal- cone E (LCE), isoliquiritigenin (ISL), echinatin (EC), glabridin (GLD), isoangustone A (ISOA), licoricidin (LID), licorisoflavan A (LIA), dehydroglyasperin C (DGC) as well as dehydroglyas- perin D (DGD), all have been reported to possess anti-inflammatory activity.” [356]; contained in root twigs |
Anti-inflammation [356,357] Anti-viral: [417,418] |
| Mint, mentha (spearmint, Mentha spicata) | Carvone: 40.8% in oil [450], 49.5% [451], 70.36% in oil [452] | Anti-inflammation [275,297,328,329] |
| ß-Caryophyllene: 1.2% in oil [450], 2.7% in oil [451], 1.1%. in oil [452] | Anti-inflammation [16,278,319] | |
| 1,8-Cineole (Eucalyptol): 17.0% in oil [450], 8.7% in oil [451], 2.24% in oil [452] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,296,297,300,301,302,303,332] | |
| Limonene: 20.8% in oil [450], 16.1% in oil [451], 6.6% in oil [452] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,297] | |
| ß-Pinene: 2.2% in oil [450], 1.1% in oil [451], 0.6% in oil [452] | - | |
| 4-Terpineol: 1.3% in oil [450], 1.5% in oil [451], 1.09% in oil [452] |
Anti-inflammation [275,278] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Oregano (Poliomintha longiflora) |
Carvacrol: 12.6% in oil, 60.03% to 64.315 in fractions at 140C and undistilled oil, respectively [453] |
Anti-inflammation [275,285,326,337] Anti-viral: [408] |
| P-Cymene: 11.5% to 35.7% in Oreganum vulgare in Nefza, Tunisia and different harvest years, 27.3% to 46.3% in Krib, Tunisia and different harvest years [454,455] | Anti-inflammation [322,328] | |
| o-Ocymene: 39.13% in oil, 47.96 to 53.97% in fractions at 82C and 100C, respectively [453] | - | |
| α-Terpinene: 5.57% in oil [453] | Anti-inflammation [275,360] | |
| γ-Terpinene: 22.34% in oil, 15.59%, 24.43%, 40.57% in fractions at 82C, 100C, 120C, respectively [453] | Anti-inflammation [278,360,386] | |
| Thymol: 1.71% in oil, 5.08% and 3.77% in fractions at 140C and undistilled oil, respectively [453] |
Anti-inflammation [275,319,337,389] Anti-viral [408] |
|
| Paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) |
Bavachromene (CID: 5321800) | Anti-viral: [411] |
| 3′-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)-3′,4,7-trihydroxyflavane (CID: 129704069) | Anti-viral: [411] | |
| Broussoflavan A (CID: 44257078) | Anti-viral: [411] | |
| Kazinol A (CID: 442414; CAS: 99624-28-9) | Anti-viral: [411] | |
| Kazinol B (CID: 480869; CAS: 99624-27-8) | Anti-viral: [411] | |
| Kazinol J (CID: 21637732) |
Anti-inflammation: [320] Anti-viral: [420] |
|
| Broussonol E (CID: 10343070) | Anti-viral: [411] | |
| Broussoflavonol B (CID: 480828) | Anti-inflammation: [320] | |
| Others: polyphenols (broussochalcone A, papyriflavonol A, 3′-(3-methylbut-2-enyl)-3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavane, kazinol F |
Anti-inflammation: [456,457] Anti-viral: [420] |
|
| Peppermint (hybrid mint, Mentha × piperita, or Mentha balsamea) | ß-Caryophyllene: 1.7% in oil [458] | Anti-inflammation [16,278,319] |
| 1,8-Cineole: 5.3% in oil [458]; 5.13% in oil [459]; 5.62% in oil [452] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,296,297,300,301,302,303,332] | |
| Limonene: 2.6% in oil [458]; 1.58% in oil [452] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,297] | |
| Menthol: 40% in oil [458]; 36.02% in oil [459]; 38.45% in oil [452] |
Anti-inflammation [275,300,337,366,367] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Menthone: 23.4% in oil [458]; 24.56% in oil [459]; 21.85% in oil [452] | Anti-inflammation [275,368] | |
| Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) |
Borneol: 3% in oil [432]; 4.08% to 8.17% depending on the location in Tunisia [460] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,319] |
| ß-Caryophyllene: 3.2% in oil [432] | Anti-inflammation [16,278,319] | |
| 1,8-Cineole (Eucalyptol): 43.1% in oil [432]; 33.08% to 37.75% depending on the location in Tunisia [460] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,296,297,300,301,302,303,332] | |
| Camphor: 11.3% in oil [432]; 13.55% to 18.13% depending on the location in Tunisia [460] | Anti-inflammation [278,296] | |
| α-Pinene: 11.4% in oil [432]; 8.58% to 9.32% depending on the location in Tunisia [460] | Anti-inflammation [278,337] | |
| Camphene: 5.0% in oil [432]; 3.58% to 5.07% depending on the location in Tunisia [460] | Anti-inflammation [322,328] | |
| Limonene: 2.6% in oil [432]; 2.99% to 3.19% depending on the location in Tunisia [460] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,297] | |
| Summer savory (Satureja hortensis) |
Carvacrol: 11% to 67.0% depending on the location harvested [461]; 2.5% in oil [462] |
Anti-inflammation [275,285,326,337] Anti-viral: [408] |
| P-Cymene: 3.4% to 11.7% in oil depending on the location harvested [461]; 6.30% [462] | Anti-inflammation [322,328] | |
| Γ-Terpinene: 15.30% to 38.7% depending on the location harvested [461]; 20.72% [462] | Anti-inflammation [278,360,386] | |
| ß-myrcene: 1.9% to 2.8% depending on the location harvested [461]; 1.98% [462] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,337] | |
| α-Terpinene: 1.29% to 4.9% depending on the location harvested [461]; 2.93% [462] | Anti-inflammation [275,360] | |
| 4-Terpineol: none to 1.6% depending on the location harvested [461]; 0.17% [462] |
Anti-inflammation [275,278] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Thymol: 23.12% [462]; none to 28.2% [461] |
Anti-inflammation [275,319,337,389] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Tea tree or Narrow-leaved paperbark (Melaleuca alternifolia) |
ß-Caryophyllene: 2.2% in oil [432] | Anti-inflammation [16,278,319] |
| p-Cymene: 2.8% in oil [432]; 2.9% in oil [463] | Anti-inflammation [322,328] | |
| 1,8-Cineole (eucalyptol): 2.3% in oil [432]; 5.1% in oil [463] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,296,297,300,301,302,303,332] | |
| Limonene: 3.6% in oil [432]; 1.0% in oil [463] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,297] | |
| α-Pinene: 3.9% in oil [432] | Anti-inflammation [278,337] | |
| 4-Terpineol: 38.7% in oil [432]; 40.1% in oil [463] |
Anti-inflammation [275,278] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Γ-Terpenine: 16.3% in oil [432]; 23.0% in oil [463] | Anti-inflammation [241,318,344] | |
| α-Terpineol: 4.6% in oil [432]; 2.4% in oil [463] | Anti-inflammation [275,278,319,387] | |
| Tea plant (Camellia sinensis) |
(+)-Catechin | Anti-inflammation [330] |
| (−)-Epicatechin | Anti-viral: [413] | |
| Epigallocatechin-3-gallate |
Anti-inflammation [345] Anti-viral: [416] |
|
| Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) |
α-Phellandrene: 0.33% [464]; 0.3% [465]; 0.27% [466] | Anti-inflammation [278] |
| α-Pinene: 1.07% [464]; 0.8% [465]; 0.47% [466]; 1.6% in oil [432] | Anti-inflammation [278,337] | |
| α-Terpinene: 2.79% [466] | Anti-inflammation [275,360] | |
| γ-Terpinene: 30.9% [464]; 16.5% [465]; 29.12% [466]; 7.9% in oil [432] | Anti-inflammation [278,360,386] | |
| Thymol: 47.59% [464]; 44.7% [465]; 43.1% in oil [432] |
Anti-inflammation [275,319,337,389] Anti-viral: [408] |
|
| Turmeric (Curcuma longa) |
Curcumin: Curcumin vs. demethoxycurcumin vs. bisdemothoxycurcumin is 80:15:5 but some reports suggest demethoxycurcumin has stronger bioactive potency [339] |
Anti-inflammation: [339,340,341] Anti-viral: [341,412,413,467] |
| demethoxycurcumin | - | |
| Bisdemothoxycurcumin | - | |
| Cyclocurcumin |
Anti-inflammation: [341,342] Anti-viral: [341] |
-: none or not so many studies, or no in vitro and/or in vivo studies at chemical compound level to be convincing.