Table 3.
Characteristics of included studies in the systematic review.
| Author (Country, Year) |
Study Design (Duration) |
Participants | Intervention Group (Composition of the Whole Breakfast) |
Control Group (Composition of the Whole Breakfast) |
Composition of the Intervention Breakfast | Subsequent Lunch Intake |
Appetite (Mean ± SD/SE *) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Population 1 | Age (Mean ± SD) |
BMI (Mean ± SD) |
Intervention (mm) | Control (mm) | ||||||
| Baum (US, 2015) [13] |
Crossover (9 days) |
[n = 16; 44%], Nonoverweight |
9.9 ± 1.2 | 16.7 ± 1.6 | PRO (344 kcal, 18 g protein, 45 g CHO, 16 g sugars, 1 g fiber, 10.5 g fat) | CHO 2 (327 kcal, 3 g protein, 55 g CHO, 39 g sugars, 0.5 g fiber, 11 g fat) | Egg whites, butter, orange juice, white bread | Buffet-style meal served at 240 min | Hunger Post–breakfast: 32.8 ± 8.2 * Pre–lunch: 77.6 ± 3.5 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 68.9 ± 7.5 * Pre–lunch: 23.3 ± 4.2 * |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 50.8 ± 6.1 * Pre–lunch: 82.6 ± 4.3 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 42.7 ± 6.1 * Pre–lunch: 21.1 ± 5.3 * |
| [n = 13; 46%], Overweight/obese |
9.5 ± 1.4 | 22.7 ± 4.0 | PRO (344 kcal, 18 g protein, 45 g CHO, 16 g sugars, 1 g fiber, 10.5 g fat) | CHO * (327 kcal, 3 g protein, 55 g CHO, 39 g sugars, 0.5 g fiber, 11 g fat) | Egg whites, butter, orange juice, white bread | Buffet-style meal served at 240 min | Hunger Post–breakfast: 37.0 ± 9.4 * Pre–lunch: 85.2 ± 5.0 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 70.0 ± 9.0 * Pre–lunch: 13.0 ± 4.7 * |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 41.5 ± 10.1 * Pre–lunch: 81.6 ± 7.0 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 38.2 ± 9.2 * Pre–lunch: 15.4 ± 6.3 * |
||
| Bellissimo (Canada, 2020) [20] |
Crossover (25 days) |
[n = 17; 47%], Nonoverweight |
12.0 ± 1.65 | 20.8 ± 3.7 | HP (450 kcal, 45 g protein, 30 g CHO, 2 g fiber, 17 g fat)MP (450 kcal, 30 g protein, 45 g CHO, 3 g fiber, 17 g fat)LP (450 kcal, 15 g protein, 61 g CHO, 5 g fiber, 17 g fat) | C (450 kcal, 7 g protein, 69 g CHO, 3 g fiber, 17 g fat) | Egg yolk, egg whites, butter, cheese, home fries, ketchup |
Pizza lunch according to one’s preference served at 210 min |
NA | NA |
| Douglas (US, 2019) [21] |
Crossover (15 days) |
[n = 19, 100%], Overweight |
19 ± 1 | 29.0 ± 3.8 | SKIP-HP (350 kcal, 35 g protein) | SKIP-NP (350 kcal, 13 g protein) |
Yogurt parfaits, bagels, breakfast burritos, cereals, etc. |
NA | Hunger Post–breakfast: 9.9 ± 9.7 Pre–lunch: 50.8 ± 19.7 Fullness Post–breakfast: 72.0 ± 22.2 Pre–lunch: 28.3 ± 16.8 |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 12.7 ± 15.9 Pre–lunch: 61.1 ± 20.5 Fullness Post–breakfast: 83. 5 ± 11.3 Pre–lunch: 30.2 ± 22.5 |
| [n = 18, 100%], Overweight |
19 ± 1 | 28.9 ± 2.9 | CONSUME-HP (350 kcal, 35 g protein) | CONSUME-NP (350 kcal, 13 g protein) | Yogurt parfaits, bagels, breakfast burritos, cereals, etc. |
NA | Hunger Post–breakfast: 10.3 ± 17.9 Pre–lunch: 70.8 ± 14.6 Fullness Post–breakfast: 80.9 ± 14.9 Pre-lunch: 21.0 ± 14.5 |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 7.3 ± 9.2 Pre–lunch: 46.4 ± 22.5 Fullness Post–breakfast: 75.8 ± 19.3 Pre–lunch: 34.8 ± 17.8 |
||
| Kral (US, 2016) [15] |
Crossover (3 weeks) |
[n = 40, 47.5%], Overweight/Nonoverweight |
9.4 ± 0.8 | NA Overweight or obese (45%) |
Egg (350 kcal, protein % energy: 21) | Oatmeal (350 kcal, protein % energy: 14%)Cereal (350 kcal, protein % energy: 8%) | Scrambled eggs (prepared with 1/8 tsp. table salt), toasted whole wheat bread, diced peaches, and milk (1% fat) | Lunch (chicken nuggets, macaroni and cheese, green beans (prepared with 3 g of salted butter), ketchup, applesauce, chocolate chip cookies, and milk) served at 180 min |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 19.0 ± 4.4 * Pre–lunch: 83.1 ± 4.4 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 60.4 ± 4.9 * Pre–lunch: 8.4 ± 4.9 * |
Hunger (Oarmal) Post–breakfast: 14.1 ± 3.5 * Pre–lunch: 69.4 ± 4.9 * Fullness (Oarmal) Post–breakfast: 59.0 ± 5.5 * Pre–lunch: 16.0 ± 3.8 * Hunger (Cereal) Post–breakfast: 22.5 ± 5.5 * Pre–lunch: 77.0 ± 4.6 * Fullness (Cereal) Post–breakfast: 57. 7 ± 6.0 * Pre–lunch: 14.4 ± 7.1 * |
| Leidy (UK, 2010) [16] |
Crossover (17 days) |
[n = 13, 46%], Overweight/Nonoverweight |
14.3 ± 1.1 | 23.5 ± 3.6 | PR * (512 ± 26 kcal, 49.1 ± 2.5 g protein, 62.8 ± 3.2 g CHO, 30.7 ± 1.6 g sugar, 2.1 ± 0.1 g fiber, 7.5 ± 0.4 g fat) |
PN * (513 ± 26 kcal, 18.1 ± 0.9 g protein, 95.3 ± 4.9 g CHO, 31.1 ± 1.6 g sugar, 2.0 ± 0.1 g fiber, 7.5 ± 0.4 g fat) |
Whey Pancakes (whey protein powder, skim milk, margarine, egg–whites, butter, etc.) | Buffet lunch served at 240 min |
Fullness Post–breakfast: 54.7 ± 8.1 * Pre–lunch: 32.1 ± 5.8 * |
Fullness Post–breakfast: 48.7 ± 6.0 * Pre–lunch: 18.5 ± 4.0 * |
| Leidy (US, 2013) [22] |
Crossover (5 weeks) |
[n = 20, 100%], Overweight |
19 ± 4.5 | 28.6 ± 3.1 | HP (350 kcal, 35.1 g protein, 35.1 g CHO, 18 g sugar, 6.1 g fiber, 7.8 g fat) | NP (350 kcal, 13 g protein, 57 g CHO, 18 g sugar, 6.1 g fiber, 7.8 g fat) | Egg, Beef, Dairy, Plant–based, etc. | NA | Hunger Post–breakfast: 7.1 ± 5. 7 * Pre–lunch: 45.3 ± 3.6 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 76.3 ± 2.2 * Pre–lunch: 35.0 ± 2.9 * |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 10.5 ± 2.3 * Pre–lunch: 49.7 ± 5.3 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 71.0 ± 5.1 * Pre–lunch: 28.0 ± 3.6 * |
| Liu (US, 2015) [14] |
Parallel (9 days) |
[n = 15, 60%], Overweight/Nonoverweight |
15.6 ± 4.26 | NA Overweight or obese (40%) |
Egg (342 kcal, 16.8 g protein, 32.2 g CHO, 16.6 g fat) | Bagel (336 kcal, 11 g protein, 48.6 g CHO, 10 g fat) | Scrambled, toast, jelly | Lunch (baked chicken, macaroni and cheese, green beans, mandarin oranges, rolls, and milk) served at 180 min | Hunger Post–breakfast: 23.0 ± 6.0 * Pre–lunch: 42.2 ± 6.2 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 66.4 ± 6. 9 * Pre–lunch: 49.6 ± 7.3 * |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 25.2 ± 6.2 * Pre–lunch: 49.0 ± 6.0 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 68.44 ± 6. 7 * Pre–lunch: 49.55 ± 4. 9 * |
| Mehrabani (Iran, 2015) [23] |
Crossover (16 days) |
[n = 34, 0%], Overweight |
11.14 ± 0.8 | 27.62 ± 2.7 | LFM (401.24 kcal, 19.08 g protein, 49.055 g CHO, 0.458 g fiber, 15.407 g fat) | W (297.74 kcal, 10.931 g protein, 37.185 g CHO, 0.458 g fiber, 12.779 g fat) AJ (411.44 kcal, 11.276 g protein, 65.195 g CHO, 1.016 g fiber, 13.022 g fat) |
Low–fat milk, Iranian whole wheat bread, Walnut, Low–fat cheese | Buffet-style meal served at 300 min | Hunger Post–breakfast: 12.6 ± 1.0 * Pre–lunch: 72.6 ± 1.0 * Fullness Post–breakfast: 86.4 ± 0.9 * Pre–lunch: 21.1 ± 1.4 * |
Hunger (W) Post–breakfast: 22.8 ± 1.6 * Pre–lunch: 79.4 ± 1.0 * Fullness (W) Post–breakfast: 74.0 ± 1.5 * Pre–lunch: 16.4 ± 0.9 * Hunger (AJ) Post–breakfast: 14.7 ± 1.2 * Pre–lunch: 75.9 ± 0.8 * Fullness (AJ) Post–breakfast: 83.5 ± 1.0 * Pre–lunch: 19.5 ± 1.3 * |
| Wang (China, 2014) [17] |
Parallel (9 days) |
[n = 56, 46%], Overweight |
14.1 ± 2.1 | 32.2 ± 1.7 | Egg (386 kcal, 12.2 g protein, 29.3 g CHO, 15.9 g fat) | Steamed bread (386 kcal, 8.2 g protein, 44.7 g CHO, 11.5 g fat) |
Boiled eggs, White rice, Milk | Lunch (pork with Chinese cabbage, apple, and rice, etc.) served at 240 min | Hunger Post–breakfast: 23.2 ± 0.2 Pre–lunch: 41.1 ± 0.4 Fullness Post–breakfast: 64, 9 ± 0.7 Pre–lunch: 45.2 ± 0.6 |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 23.1 ± 0.2 Pre–lunch: 52.3 ± 0.5 Fullness Post–breakfast: 65.0 ± 0.8 Pre–lunch: 35.1 ± 0.8 |
| Wang (China, 2015) [24] |
Parallel (3 months) |
[n = 156, 49%], Overweight |
14.3 ± 2.2 | 32.0 ± 1.7 | Egg (386 kcal, 12.2 g protein, 29.3 g CHO, 15.9 g fat) | Steamed bread (386 kcal, 8.2 g protein, 44.7 g CHO, 11.5 g fat) | Boiled eggs, White rice, Milk | Lunch (pork with Chinese cabbage, apple, and rice, etc.) served at 240 min | Hunger Post–breakfast: 22.1 ± 0.1 Pre–lunch: 40.6 ± 0.6 Fullness: Post–breakfast: 65.1 ± 0.8 Pre–lunch: 45.0 ± 0.6 |
Hunger Post–breakfast: 22.30 ± 0.3 Pre–lunch: 51.20 ± 0.3 Fullness: Post–breakfast: 64.9 ± 0.9 Pre–lunch: 34.9 ± 0.9 |
1 [total number completed: % girl], subject health status; PRO: protein-based breakfast; CHO 2: carbohydrate-based breakfast; HP: high protein; MP: medium protein; LP: low protein; C: control; SKIP-HP: habitually skipped higher-protein breakfast; SKIP-NP: habitually skipped normal-protein breakfast; CONSUME-HP: habitually consumed higher-protein breakfast; CONSUME-NP: habitually consumed normal-protein breakfast; PR: protein-rich breakfast; PN: normal-protein breakfast; HP: high-protein breakfast; NP: normal-protein breakfast; LFM: a fixed breakfast with low-fat milk; W: a fixed breakfast with water; AJ: a fixed breakfast with apple juice; NA: Not Applicable; BMI: body mass index; CHO: Carbohydrate; US = United States; UK = United Kingdom; 1 kcal = 4.18 kJ; SD = standard deviation; SE * = standard error.