Table 1.

List of intestine-protective interventions described in this review.

Treatment	Model	Outcome	Reference
Fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)	Case report, patient with steroid-refractory UC	Induction/maintenance of remission	[144]
	Randomized controlled trial, UC patients	Maintenance of steroid-free remission	[146]
	Randomized controlled trial, CD patients	Decrease in the endoscopic index of severity, prevention of increase in serum CRP	[149]
Faecalibacterium prausnitzii	TNBS mouse model of colitis	Attenuation of colitis, reduction in colitis-driven gut dysbiosis	[152]
Bifidobacterium longum 536	Randomized controlled trial, UC patients	Significant decreases in the disease activity index, the Rachmilewitz endoscopic index, and the Mayo subscore	[155]
Escherichia coli Nissle 1917	Clinical trial, UC patients	Equivalent to mesalazine in preventing relapse	[156]
IL-10-secreting Lactococcus lactis	DSS, Il-10−/− mouse models of colitis	Reduction in intestinal histopathology	[162]
	Clinical trial, CD patients	Decrease in disease activity, serum CRP	[164]
Saccharomyces boulardii	Randomized controlled trial, CD patients	Decrease in intestinal permeability	[157]
	C. rodentium mouse model of colitis	Decreases in body weight loss, histopathology, tissue MPO, and intestinal permeability observed	[165]
	CD4+CD45RBhi T cell adoptive transfer mouse model of colitis	Decreases in body weight loss, histopathology, intestinal pro-inflammatory cytokines, and NF-κB activation observed	[166]
	DSS mouse model of colitis	Reduction in clinical score, histopathology, and colonization by colitis-associated Candida albicans	[167]
	DSS mouse model of colitis	Reduction in the disease activity index, improved weight recovery, amelioration of colitis-driven gut dysbiosis	[168]
Extracellular ATP-degrading S. cerevisiae	TNBS, DSS, and anti-CD3 mouse models of intestinal inflammation	Decreases in colon length shortening, histopathology, weight loss, and intestinal pro-inflammatory cytokine expression	[171]
Hypoxanthine	DSS mouse model of colitis; mice pre-treated with streptomycin	Decreases in ER stress, intestinal epithelial apoptosis, body weight loss, and colon shortening; increases in mucus secretion, energy homeostasis, and cellular proliferation	[130]
Indole-3-propionic acid (IPA)	DSS mouse model of colitis	Decreases in histopathology, intestinal pro-inflammatory cytokines, and colon shortening	[136]
	Indomethacin mouse model of intestinal inflammation	Reduction in intestinal permeability	[187]
Indigo naturalis	Randomized controlled trial, active UC patients	Increases in clinical remission and mucosal healing	[190]
Butyrate	DSS mouse model of colitis	Decreases in histopathology, colon shortening, pro-inflammatory cytokines in colon tissue	[179]
	Clinical trial, treatment-refractory UC patients	Decreases in endoscopic score, histologic degree of inflammation, stool frequency, and blood discharge	[180]
	Clinical trial, treatment-refractory UC patients	60% response rate based on positive change in activity score	[181]
	Clinical trial, UC patients	Significantly greater improvement in the disease activity index when butyrate combined with 5-ASA vs. 5-ASA alone	[182]
Phage therapy	DSS mouse model of colitis; mice pre-colonized with AIEC	Anti-AIEC bacteriophages reduced the disease activity index and gut AIEC burdens	[197]
	C. difficile Syrian Golden hamster model of colitis	Reduced bacterial colonization and delay in symptom onset	[198]
	Cefoperazone-pretreatment/C. difficile mouse model of colitis	Reduction in intestinal C. difficile burdens	[199]