Table 2.
Epigenetic and RNA alteration induced by fathers’ nutrition status.
| Effects | Paternal Diet | References | Comments | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Epigenetic alterations | Sperm DMRs 1 | Low protein FA deficient or supplemented |
[51,54] | Paternally imprinted gene H19 |
| DNA methylation | Low protein HFD FA deficient Food restriction |
[38,39,49,56] | Genes involved in neurological and autoimmune disease, diabetes, cancer, autism and schizophrenia | |
| Gene expression and transcriptome | High sugar | [63,67] | H3K9-me3 regulators and Polycomb | |
| Sperm mutations | FA deficient or supplemented | [57] | DNA fragmentation and tandem repetitions | |
| RNA changes | Sperm mRNA content and/or expression levels | Low protein HFD High sugar FA sufficient |
[24,25,39,40,64,65,67,68,69] | Metabolic disorders, lipid metabolism, embryonic development and spermatogenesis |
| sncRNA | Low protein High sugar |
[25,69] | tRNA and tsRNA | |
| HFD FA supplemented |
[39,68] | piRNA | ||
| Low protein HFD FA supplemented |
[25,39,40,44,64,65,66] | miRNA let-7 species miR-19 species miR-182 miR-183 miR-340 miR-193b miR-204 |
||
1 DMRs for differentially methylated regions.