Table 1.

Similarities and differences in the mechanisms identified in offspring exposed to restricted nutrition versus caloric excess. Red arrow: Decreased; Blue arrow: Increased; Black arrow: No change. Gray shading indicates data is not available.

Environmental Exposure	Pdx1 Expression		Mitochondrial Metabolism  +		Oxidative Stress  🡪		Functional Outcome		mTOR Abundance/Activity
	Fetal Life	Adult Life	Adult Life						Birth		Adult Life
Intrauterine growth restriction (due to maternal protein restriction or uterine artery ligation)	🡫 (26, 33)	🡫 (26, 33)	🡫 🡫	glucose-stimulated ATP (87) expression of mitochondrial-encoded genes (87)	🡩	oxidative stress (87)	🡫	glucose and mitochondrial-fuel stimulated insulin secretion (87)		mTOR protein (18)	🡫	mTOR protein (18)
			Males and females:		Males only:		Males and females:
			🡫	glucose-stimulated ATP (21)	🡩	reactive oxygen species (21)	🡩	glucose-stimulated insulin secretion (21)
			Females only:
			🡫	expression of Tfam (21) expression of mitochondrial-encoded genes (21)
Maternal protein restriction without intrauterine growth restriction		🡫 (20)							🡫	mTOR activity (20)	🡫	mTOR activity (20)
Maternal caloric excess		Males: 🡫 (65,73,81) Females: (65)	Exposure to a high-fat, high-sugar diet from before and throughout pregnancy and lactation (64):
			Females:		Males and females:		Females:
			🡩 🡩 🡩	mitochondrial respiration expression of mitochondrial-encoded genes mitochondrial density	🡩	reactive oxygen species	🡩	glucose and mitochondrial-fuel stimulated insulin secretion
			Males:				Males:
			🡫	mitochondrial respiration expression of mitochondrial-encoded genes mitochondrial density				glucose and mitochondrial-fuel stimulated insulin
			Exposure to a high-fat diet from conception and throughout pregnancy and lactation (65):
					Males but not females:
					🡩	oxidative stress
					🡩	expression of genes involved in superoxide production
			Exposure to a high-fat diet from conception and throughout pregnancy and lactation (91):
			🡫 🡫	glucose-stimulated ATP basal ATP content			🡫	glucose stimulated insulin secretion
				mitochondrial DNA content expression of Tfam expression of mitochondrial-encoded genes