Figure 4.

Possible differences between effects of maternal colostrum/milk and formula on the neonatal gut. The figure illustrates some of the proposed functional effects of maternal colostrum/milk bioactive factors on the dominant gut microbiota communities, mucosal epithelium, and immune cells, relative to formula diets. Enterobacteriaceae, Bifidobacteraceae, and Clostridiaceae families represent common bacteria groups found in the developing neonatal gut. The bacterial community composition can be affected by maternal milk factors, such as Igs (IgA and IgG), LF, bovine and human oligosaccharides (BMO/HMO), and a number of growth factors (e.g., EGF). Igs and LF have antimicrobial properties that function to limit epithelial inflammation and apoptosis resulting from activation of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) by Enterobacteriaceae. BMO/HMO may serve as a substrate for growth and colonization of Bifidobacteraceae, a family of bacteria associated with gut health. The figure also illustrates that key peripheral organs, including the brain and lungs, directly or indirectly may be impacted by colostrum/milk-induced improved gut microbial activity and gut mucosal immune defense. (Created with BioRender.com; accessed on 7 June 2021.)