Table 5.
Effect of conductive nano-construct on intercellular coupling and contractions.
| Category | Conductive Construct | Mechanical Properties | Electrical Properties | Cell Line | Cellular Response |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Carbon NMs | PGS-gelatin/CNTs membranes [123] |
E = 373 kPa | Z = 7 kΩ at 40 Hz | Neonatal rat CMs | Enhanced Cx43 and cTnI expression, 2.2-folds increase in the beating rate after 5 days of incubation |
| Pristine MWCNT films [121] |
- | - | NRVMs, cardiac fibroblasts | Sarcomeric striations, tight desmosomes like nano-connections | |
| Pristine MWCNTs films [112] |
- | σ = 3.1 mS (along fibre axes) 0.25 mS (transversely) | neonatal rat CMs | Sarcomeric striation formation, enhanced Cx43 expression, synchronised beating patterns via pacemaker | |
| Gelatin, chitosan, SWCNTs [122] |
Ec = 15 kPa | - | NRVMs | Three-folds increase in the beating frequency | |
| PEG/PLA/CNTs membranes [124] |
E = 60 Mpa, εr = 52%, | Four-probe technique, σ = 30 mS/cm | CMs | Enhanced expression of α-actinin, and cTnI. Synchronous beating at low CNT concentrations. | |
| PCL/CHI/Ppy/graphene patches [128] | E = 0.098 MPa, UTS = 1.27 MPa, εr = 8% | Two-probe technique, σ = 5.33 S/cm | mESCs-CMs | Enhanced cTnI expression, Beating CMs | |
| PEG/Graphene hybrid scaffolds [129] | - | I-V curves, R = 0.947 kΩ | NRVMs | Enhanced Cx43 expression, 2.2-folds increase in calcium transient amplitude | |
| GelMA/rGO hydrogels [130] | E = 22.6 kPa | Z = 1.5 kΩ at 100 Hz | Primary CMs, | Well organised striated sarcomeres, 9 times faster beating rate | |
| CHI, CNFs composites [125] |
E = 28.1 kPa | Four-probe technique, σ = 0.25 S/m | Neonatal ratCMs, rat MI model | Strong contractile phenotype with several folds increase in Cx43, GATA4, cTnI, cTnT2, Myh6, Myh7, ANF expressions | |
| Metallic NMs | Alginate/GNWs patch [93] | Ec = 3.5 kPa | C-AFM, Z < 3 kΩ at 100 kHz | Cardiac cells | Two-folds increase in Cx43, and sarcomeric α-actinin expressions |
| RTG/gold NPs gels [132] |
G’ = 255.3 Pa at 37 C | Multi-meter, R = 140 kΩ | NRVMs | Enhanced expression of Cx43, reduced α-actinin expression. | |
| Collagen/Ag-NPs membranes [133] | - | 4-electrode system, σ = 0.8 µS/m | CMs | Up-regulation of Cx43 and α-actinin |
Abbreviations: PGS: polyglycerol sebacate storage modulus, ANF: Atrial natriuretic factor, C-AFM: conductive atomic force microscopy, GNWs: gold nanowires, RTG: reverse thermal gels, G’: shear storage modulus, εr: strain at rupture, Ec: compressive modulus, UTS: ultimate tensile strength, E = elastic modulus.