Table 1.
Medications for the control of UTs.
| Intervention | Route, Dosage and Frequency | Author/Year | Mechanism/Usage | Study Design | Subjects | Subject Number | Result |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Clinical Studies | |||||||
| Acarbose | Oral, 100 mg, TID | Evenepoel et al., 2006 [26] | Changes in bacterial amino acid metabolism | Clinical trial | Healthy people | 9 | PCS ↘ |
| AST-120 | Oral, 2.7 to 9 g/day | Chen et al., 2019 [32] | UT adsorbent | Meta-analysis | Patients with CKD | 3349 | IS ↘ |
| L-carnitine | i.v., 20 mg/kg, 3 times/week | Fatouros et al., 2010 [33] | Antioxidation | Clinical trial | Patients undergoing HD | 12 | MDA ↘ |
| Folate | Oral, 10 mg, QD | Trimarchi et al., 2002 [34] | Metabolic degradation of UT | RCT | Patients undergoing HD | 62 | Hcy ↘ |
| Folate and Methylcobami | i.v. methylcobalami 500 µg, 3 times/week and oral folate 15 mg, QD | Koyama et al., 2010 [25] | Metabolic degradation of UT | RCT | Patients undergoing HDs | 40 | ADMA ↘, Hcy ↘ |
| Ketoacid and LPD | Oral, 1 pill/5 kg, QD | Marzocco et al., 2013 [35] | Decreased amino acid degradation/protein carbamylation | RCT | CKD stage 3 adults | 32 | IS ↘ |
| Ketoacid and LPD | Oral, 0.1 g/kg, TID | Garibotto et al., 2018 [29] | Decreased amino acid degradation/protein carbamylation | RCT | Patients with CKD | 17 | Urea ↘ |
| Reduced glutathione | Oral, 400 mg, TID | Wang et al., 2016 [36] | Antioxidation | RCT | Patients undergoing HD | 150 | IL-6 ↘, TNF-α ↘ |
| Animal Studies | |||||||
| AST-120 | Oral, 8% w/w, QD | Sato et al., 2017 [37] | UT adsorbent | Animal | Adenine-induced CKD mice | 24 | IS ↘, PCS ↘ |
| L-carnitine | i.p., 500 mg/kg, QD | Sener et al., 2004 [38] | Antioxidation | Animal | Right nephrectomy rats | 16 | BUN ↘, Cr ↘, MDA ↘ |
| Cilastatin | i.v., 200 mg/kg, once | Huo et al., 2019 [30] | OAT inhibitor | Animal | Imipenem-induced nephrotoxicity rabbits | 4 | BUN ↘, Cr ↘ |
| cyclosporine | i.v., 3 mg/kg, once | Lemoine et al., 2015 [24] | Antioxidation | Animal | I/R mice | 22 | BUN ↘, Cr ↘ |
| Enalapril | Oral, 12.6 mg/kg, QD | Marek et al., 2018 [39] | ACEI, increased glomerular filtration, and urine output | Animal | Wistar rats | 27 | TMAO ↘ |
| meclofenamate | i.v., 10 mg/kg, TID | Saigo et al., 2014 [28] | SULT inhibitors | Animal | Renal I/R rats | 9 | BUN ↘, Cr ↘, IS ↘ |
| Probenecid | i.v., 50 mg/kg, once | Huo et al., 2019, [30] | OAT inhibitor | Animal | Imipenem-induced nephrotoxicity rabbits | 12 | BUN ↘, Cr ↘ |
↘, decrease; ACEI, angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; ADMA, asymmetric dimethylarginine; BUN, blood urea nitrogen; CKD, chronic kidney disease; Cr, creatinine; Hcy, homocysteine; HD, hemodialysis; i.p., intraperitoneal; i.v., intravenous; I/R, ischemia/reperfusion; IL-6, interleukin-6; IS, indoxyl sulfate; LPD, low protein diet; MDA, malondialdehyde; OAT, organic anion transporter; PCS, p-cresyl sulfate; QD, quaque die; RCT, randomized controlled trial; SULT, sulfotransferase; TID, ter in die; TMAO, trimethylamine N-oxide; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha; UA, uric acid.