Fig. 2.

The interactions between redox imbalance, mitochondrial dysfunction, chronic inflammation, and related symptoms. As explained in the text, redox imbalance, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation are bidirectionally related to each other and may cause some of the symptoms of both long COVID-19 and ME/CFS. The bidirectional connections mean that an initial abnormality in one component can trigger abnormalities in other components and can precipitate a persistent, self-reinforcing pathological process.