Table 1.

Non-mosquito insect-borne diseases observed in the Caribbean and Latin America.

Insect Vector (s) Type, Family, Genus species	Associated Pathogen	Disease caused by Arbovirus	Reported Pathogen Reservoir	Detection in Humans in Latin American Countries	Detection in Humans from Non-Hispanic Caribbean Countries	Common Treatments	Reference
Louse Pediculus humanus	(a) Rickettsia prowazekii (b) Bartonella quintana (Rocalimaea quintana) (c) Borrelia recurrentis (d) Rickettsia typhi (Rickettsia mooseri)	-(a and d) Typhus -(b) Trench (Quintana) fever -(c) louse-borne relapsing fever	-(a) Louse and Flying squirrels -(b and c) Louse humans -(d) Rats	Yes	(d) Low seroprevalence (< 2%) for the Rickettsia typhi antibody were among test population. No Caribbean studies are available that definitively links the transmission of the pathogen to lice.	antibiotics	[16,28]
Phlebotomine Sandflies #Lutzomyia spp.	Leishmania spp.	Leishmaniases Exist in three forms (i) Visceral (ii) cutaneous (iii) mucocutaneous	-Humans -Rats -Mongoose, −Marsupials -Dogs	Yes	Sporadic cases of cutaneous form. In Martinique, 1 case study identified mucocutaneous form. Cutaneous form endemic in Belize and Guyana	Pentavalent antimonial (Drug resistance reported) vector control necessary	[16,22,23,89]
Flea Xenopsylla cheopis	(a) ^Yersinia spp. (b) Rickettsia typhi (Rickettsia mooseri)	(a) Plague or enteric maladies (b) Rickettsiosis	-Rodents -Monkeys -Humans	Yes	- Low seroprevalence (< 2%) for the Rickettsia typhi antibody were among test population. Possibly transmitted by rat flea.	antibiotics	[16,27,28,67]
Midges §Culicoides spp. Culicoides furens Culicoides barbosai (are important in Haiti) Culicoides phlebotomus (are important in Trinidad) (Simuliidae are responsible for Latin American transmission)	Mansonella ozzardi	Mansonelliasis	Human	Yes Studies have shown that repeated bites necessary to produce infection	Detected in -Haiti	Ivermectin	[14]
Blackflies Simuliidae Simulium spp.	Onchocerca volvulus	Onchocerciasis (river blindness)	Human	Yes Studies have shown that repeated bites necessary to produce infection	All Caribbean countries are classified as non-endemic. No evidence of human infection in the region could be found.	Ivermectin	[12,16,89,90]
Triatomine bugs Panstrongylus spp. Rhodnuis spp. Triatoma spp. #Triatominae (cockroaches and houseflies can act as carriers)	^Trypanosoma cruzi	Chagas disease	-Dog, -Sheep -Rats -Cotton-tailed Rabbits, -Human -Marsupials -Blood transfusion	Yes Endemic areas of 21 countries	Endemic in Guyana. Serological studies conducted in the 1960s, in humans from Jamaica &Trinidad showing cardiac myopathies, were positive for the antibody. Feral animals from Grenada, Aruba & Brazil tested positive for the antibodies (studies conducted in the 1960s), but negative in humans from those countries. Serological studies found 0.004% of 888 natives from Belize were positive for the T. cruzi antibody; The Triatoma dimidiata, a sylvatic vector is sometimes found in and around human dwellings. These bugs may the vector of epidemiological importance for Chagas in Belize.	benznidazole or nifurtimox Dependent on disease manifestation Vector control via insecticides remains cost effective	[16,29,30,32]

The table shows insect vectors in the region, their pathogens, reported pathogen reservoirs in the Caribbean, and medications normally used to combat the disease.

Table Key: # Vector specific to the Caribbean and Latin America, ^ viruses having Sylvatic cycle, § vectors responsible for Caribbean transmission.