Table 5.
Factors associated with moderate to very high psychological distress among the study participants (based on K10 score).
| Characteristics | Moderate to very high (score 16–50), n (%) | Low (score 10–15), n (%) | Unadjusted analyses | Adjusted analyses | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| p | OR | 95% CI | p | AOR | 95% CI | |||
| Total study participants | 644 | 284 | ||||||
| Age groups | 644 | 284 | ||||||
| 18–29 years | 317 (49.2) | 119 (41.9) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| 30–59 years | 306 (47.5) | 156 (54.9) | 0.036 | 0.74 | 0.55–0.98 | 0.295 | 0.85 | 0.62–1.16 |
| ≥60 years | 21 (3.3) | 9 (3.2) | 0.748 | 0.88 | 0.39–1.97 | 0.657 | 0.82 | 0.35–1.94 |
| Gender | 644 | 284 | ||||||
| Male | 284 (44.1) | 176 (62.0) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Female | 360 (55.9) | 108 (38.0) | 0.000 | 2.07 | 1.55–2.75 | 0.000 | 1.81 | 1.33–2.47 |
| Living status | 634 | 274 | ||||||
| Live without family members (on your own/shared house/others) | 60 (9.5) | 34 (12.4) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Live with family members (partner and/or children) | 574 (90.5) | 240 (87.6) | 0.181 | 1.36 | 0.87–2.12 | 0.248 | 1.33 | 0.82–2.16 |
| Residence location in Bangladesh | 644 | 284 | ||||||
| Urban | 506 (78.6) | 168 (59.2) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Rural | 138 (21.4) | 116 (40.8) | 0.000 | 0.40 | 0.29–0.53 | 0.000 | 0.38 | 0.27–0.54 |
| Born in Bangladesh | 643 | 284 | ||||||
| No | 8 (1.2) | 9 (3.2) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 635 (98.8) | 275 (96.8) | 0.044 | 2.60 | 0.99–6.80 | 0.012 | 3.74 | 1.34–10.5 |
| Completed level of education | 639 | 284 | ||||||
| Primary | 11 (1.7) | 14 (4.9) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Secondary | 166 (26.0) | 91 (32.0) | 0.047 | 2.32 | 1.01–5.32 | 0.158 | 1.92 | 0.78–4.72 |
| Trade/Certificate/Diploma | 9 (1.4) | 8 (2.8) | 0.570 | 1.43 | 0.42–4.93 | 0.666 | 1.34 | 0.35–5.07 |
| Degree (Bachelor) | 239 (37.4) | 83 (29.2) | 0.002 | 3.66 | 1.60–8.39 | 0.008 | 3.52 | 1.38–8.96 |
| Masters and above | 214 (33.5) | 88 (31.0) | 0.007 | 3.10 | 1.35–7.08 | 0.045 | 2.62 | 1.02–6.70 |
| Current employment condition | 631 | 278 | ||||||
| Unemployed/Home duties | 234 (37.1) | 100 (36.0) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Jobs affected by COVID-19 (lost job/working hours reduced/afraid of job loss) | 71 (11.3) | 38 (13.7) | 0.336 | 0.80 | 0.50–1.26 | 0.306 | 0.75 | 0.44–1.30 |
| Have an income source (employed/Government benefits) | 326 (51.7) | 140 (50.4) | 0.975 | 1.00 | 0.73–1.35 | 0.015 | 0.59 | 0.38–0.90 |
| Perceived distress due to change of employment status | 615 | 274 | ||||||
| A little to none | 320 (52.0) | 190 (69.3) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Moderate to a great deal | 295 (48.0) | 84 (30.7) | 0.000 | 2.09 | 1.54–2.82 | 0.000 | 2.32 | 1.63–3.29 |
| Self-identification as a frontline or essential service worker | 621 | 271 | ||||||
| No | 304 (49.0) | 160 (59.0) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 317 (51.0) | 111 (41.0) | 0.006 | 1.50 | 1.13–2.01 | 0.030 | 1.50 | 1.04–2.15 |
| COVID-19 impacted financial situation | 644 | 284 | ||||||
| No | 215 (33.4) | 124 (43.7) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 429 (66.6) | 160 (56.3) | 0.003 | 1.55 | 1.16–2.06 | 0.000 | 2.05 | 1.49–2.84 |
| Co-morbidities | 638 | 284 | ||||||
| No | 395 (61.9) | 204 (71.8) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Psychiatric/Mental health problem | 36 (5.6) | 3 (1.1) | 0.003 | 6.20 | 1.89–20.4 | 0.025 | 4.03 | 1.19–13.7 |
| Other co-morbidities* | 132 (20.7) | 57 (20.1) | 0.321 | 1.20 | 0.84–1.70 | 0.062 | 1.46 | 0.98–2.16 |
| Multiple co-morbidities | 75 (11.8) | 20 (7.0) | 0.013 | 1.94 | 1.15–3.26 | 0.007 | 2.17 | 1.24–3.80 |
| Smoking | 644 | 284 | ||||||
| Never smoker | 513 (79.7) | 238 (83.8) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Ever smoker (Daily/Non-daily/Ex) | 131 (20.3) | 46 (16.2) | 0.139 | 1.32 | 0.91–1.91 | 0.001 | 2.02 | 1.32–3.09 |
| Increased smoking in the last 4 weeks | 94 | 23 | ||||||
| No | 61 (64.9) | 19 (82.6) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 33 (35.1) | 4 (17.4) | 0.101 | 2.57 | 0.81–8.18 | 0.170 | 2.51 | 0.67–9.32 |
| Current alcohol drinking (last 4 weeks) | 637 | 281 | ||||||
| No | 614 (96.4) | 274 (97.5) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 23 (3.6) | 7 (2.5) | 0.379 | 1.47 | 0.62–3.46 | 0.279 | 1.67 | 0.66–4.22 |
| Increased alcohol drinking over the last 4 weeks | 19 | 7 | ||||||
| No | 13 (68.4) | 6 (85.7) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 6 (31.6) | 1 (14.3) | 0.378 | 2.77 | 0.27–28.4 | 0.389 | 12.6 | 0.04–4056 |
| Provided care to a family member/patient with known/suspected case of COVID-19 | 640 | 279 | ||||||
| No | 272 (42.5) | 169 (60.6) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 368 (57.5) | 110 (39.4) | 0.000 | 2.08 | 1.56–2.77 | 0.000 | 1.96 | 1.40–2.72 |
| Experience related to COVID-19 pandemic | 611 | 275 | ||||||
| No known exposure to COVID-19 | 408 (66.8) | 227 (82.5) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| I had recent overseas travel history and was in self-quarantine | 23 (3.8) | 4 (1.5) | 0.034 | 3.20 | 1.09–9.37 | 0.024 | 4.59 | 1.23–17.2 |
| I had been tested negative for COVID-19 but self-isolating | 130 (21.3) | 34 (12.4) | 0.000 | 2.12 | 1.41–3.21 | 0.000 | 2.63 | 1.68–4.13 |
| I had been tested positive for COVID-19 | 50 (8.2) | 10 (3.6) | 0.004 | 2.78 | 1.38–5.59 | 0.015 | 2.53 | 1.19–5.34 |
| Self-identification as a patient (visited a healthcare provider in the last 4 weeks) | 636 | 280 | ||||||
| No | 432 (67.9) | 226 (80.7) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 204 (32.1) | 54 (19.3) | 0.000 | 1.98 | 1.41–2.78 | 0.000 | 2.26 | 1.56–3.27 |
| Healthcare service use in the last 4 weeks | 275 | 86 | ||||||
| Telehealth consultation/Use of national helpline | 120 (43.6) | 31 (36.0) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| In-person visit to a healthcare provider | 148 (53.8) | 52 (60.5) | 0.233 | 0.74 | 0.44–1.22 | 0.317 | 1.35 | 0.75–2.41 |
| Used both services | 7 (2.5) | 3 (3.5) | 0.481 | 0.60 | 0.15–2.47 | 0.374 | 0.49 | 0.10–2.39 |
| Level of fear of COVID-19 (FCV-19S categories) | 644 | 284 | ||||||
| Low (score 7–21) | 345 (53.6) | 226 (79.6) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| High (score 22–35) | 299 (46.4) | 58 (20.4) | 0.000 | 3.38 | 2.43–4.69 | 0.000 | 3.27 | 2.29–4.66 |
| Level of coping (BRCS categories) | 644 | 284 | ||||||
| Low resilient coping (score 4–13) | 281 (43.6) | 117 (41.2) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Medium to high resilient coping (score 14−20) | 363 (56.4) | 167 (58.8) | 0.490 | 0.91 | 0.68–1.20 | 0.178 | 0.81 | 0.59–1.10 |
| Healthcare service use to overcome COVID-19 related stress in the last 4 weeks | 638 | 277 | ||||||
| No | 585 (91.7) | 261 (94.2) | 1 | 1 | ||||
| Yes | 53 (8.3) | 16 (5.8) | 0.183 | 1.48 | 0.83-2.63 | 0.199 | 1.53 | 0.80-2.92 |
Adjusted for: age, gender, living status, residence location, born in Bangladesh, education and employment.
*
Cardiac disases/Stroke/Hypertension/Hyperlipidemia/Diabetes/Cancer/Chronic respiratory illness.
Significant results are indicated as bold and italic.