Table 3.

Cadaver models

Model	Skills	Study & year	Cost	Validity
Cadaver vertebrae	Orthopaedic placement of thoracic pedicle screws	Bergeson et al. (2008) [43]	NA	Content
Fresh cadaver torso	Chest tube insertion, endotracheal intubation, venous cut down	Martin et al. (1998) [33]	≈$1000	Content, concurrent
Cadaver torso	Sentinel node mapping and axillary lymph node dissection	Dunnington et al. (2003) [34]	$175	Face, content
Fresh cadaver	Trauma surgery	Gunst et al. (2009) [38]	NA	Content
Fresh-frozen cadaver	Advanced cholecystectomy, appendicectomy, splenectomy, intestinal explorations, mesenteric lymph node biopsy and varicocoele vein occlusion	Supe et al. (2005) [37]	NA	Content, face
Fresh-frozen cadavers	Basic laparoscopic skills	Sharma et al. (2012) [44]	NA	Construct, content, predictive
Fresh-frozen cadavers	Advanced vascular surgical skills	Mitchell et al. (2012) [39]	≈$1000–$2000	Content
Theil embalmed cadaver	Advanced laparoscopy skills: colon, vascular, hernia and bariatric surgery	Giger et al. (2008) [35]	$3,534 (converted from 3000 Euro)	Face, content
Thiel-embalmed cadaver	Advanced laparoscopic renal resection	Rai et al. (2015) [42]	NA	Face, content, construct
Perfused cadaver	Multispeciality surgical skills	Carey et al. (2015) [28]	$1,262	Face, content
Cadaver and benchtop models	Burr hole insertion, chest tube insertion, small bowel anastomosis, flexor tendon repair, K-wire fixation of a metacarpal fracture	Anastakis et al. (1999) [40]	NA	Content
Cadaver and porcine models	Basic laparoscopic skills	Katz et al. (2003) [41]	NA	Content
Fresh-frozen cadaver	Renal transplant	Coloma et al. (2020) [45]	NA	Face, content