Table 4.
Synthetic organ models in urology, gynaecology, colorectal and general surgery training
| Author (country) year | Speciality and procedure | Material | No. of cases | Cost (USD) | Validation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Öpik et al. [55] (Estonia/Lithuania) 2012 |
Urology Kidney |
Gelatin | N/A | Material cost $0.70 per kidney | Face validity with porcine kidney as the comparator |
|
Silberstein et al. [56] (New Orleans, USA) 2014 |
Urology Partial nephrectomy |
Resin | N/A | Not reported | Limited face validity |
|
Turney [57] (Oxford, UK) 2014 |
Urology PCNL |
Silicone | 1 | $119 for consumables + software and 3D printer | Validation criteria not included |
|
Adams et al. [58] (Germany) 2016 |
Urology Flexible ureteroscopy |
Wax, silicone, agarose | 10 | Not reported | Face validity using endoscopy, ultrasound and mechanical assessment |
|
Von Rundstedt et al. [59] (Houston, USA) 2017 |
Urology Partial nephrectomy |
Silicone | 10 | Not reported | Face, content, concurrent validity |
|
Choi et al. [60] (Germany) 2020 |
Urology TURP |
PVA-based hydrogel | 9 | Not reported | Face, content, construct validity for TURP |
|
Johnson et al. [21] (Dallas, USA) 2019 |
Urology Urethrovesical anastomosis |
Silicone and resin | 20 | Material cost $2.50 per model | Low face, content, construct validity |
| Timberlake et al. [61] (USA) 2020 |
Urology Pyeloplasty |
Tissue-mimicking silicone | 25 | Not reported | Content, construct validity |
|
Saba et al. [62] (Rochester, USA) 2020 |
Urology Robot-assisted kidney transplanted |
PVA hydrogel | 4 | Not reported | Face, content |
| Ghazi et al. [20] (Rochester, USA) 2020 |
Urology Robot-assisted partial nephrectomy |
PVA hydrogel | 43 | Total material cost $43.3 per model | Face, content, construct validity |
| Witthaus et al. [63] (Rochester, USA) 2019 |
Urology Nerve-sparing robot-assisted radical prostatectomy |
PVA hydrogel | 14 | $75.07 in material. $160 in personnel costs per model | Face, content, construct validity |
| Towner et al. [74] (Rochester, USA) 2019 |
Gynaecology Myomectomy |
PVA hydrogel | 24 | Not reported | Face, content validity |
|
Marecik et al. [49] (Park Ridge, USA) 2008 |
Colorectal Rectal dissection |
Silicone putty, rubber, kitchen sponge | N/A | $5 per use after initial model is made | Not reported |
|
Wei et al. [76] (China) 2019 |
General Pancreaticojejunostomy |
Silicone | 3 | Not reported | Face |